桥接 IC 市场按类型、产品类型、通路类型、应用、最终用户和分销管道划分 - 2025-2030 年全球预测

桥接IC市场预计2024年将达到32.4亿美元，2025年将达34.9亿美元，2030年将达51.9亿美元，复合年增长率为8.16%。

主要市场统计数据
基准年2024年	32.4亿美元
预计2025年	34.9亿美元
预测年份 2030	51.9亿美元
复合年增长率（%）	8.16%

介绍桥接积体电路在实现下一代高速连接和系统整合的关键作用

桥接积体电路（也称为桥接IC）在现代电子技术中发挥着至关重要的作用，它能够实现不同系统结构之间的无缝通讯。桥接IC可充当通讯协定转换器、电压转换器和讯号隔离器，确保各种介面标准之间的资料完整性。随着系统日益复杂，对强大桥接功能的需求也日益增长，从而推动了硬体设计和整合方法的创新。

从人工智慧主导的自动化到支援 5G 的工业生态系统，探索将重新定义桥接 IC 应用的变革性技术变革

近年来，数位转型和新通讯标准的快速发展显着改变了桥接晶片的格局。人工智慧主导的自动化与工业物联网平台的融合，推动了对高吞吐量、低延迟资料桥接的需求。同时，5G 网路的部署也推动了对能够在无线基地台和数位处理子系统之间转换通讯协定的先进前端模组的需求。

评估2025年美国关税对桥接积体电路供应链成本结构与全球贸易动态的累积影响

2025年美国加征关税的实施，为桥接积体电路市场的供应商和原始设备製造商带来了新的考量。半导体元件关税税率的上升增加了投入成本，迫使企业重新评估供应商合同，并探索其他筹资策略。这种环境强化了多元化的重要性，因为相关人员正在寻求降低供应链集中在贸易壁垒较高的地区所带来的风险。

策略市场细分突显了桥接积体电路按产品类型、技术和最终用户产业分類的关键需求驱动因素

从多个细分角度审视桥接IC市场，会发现其独特的需求模式，从而揭示关键的成长动力和技术偏好。按介面类型分类，PCI和PCIe桥接解决方案在高效能运算和伺服器应用中日益受到青睐，而SATA介面产品对于传统储存系统至关重要。 USB介面桥接电路在​​可携式和桌上型电脑生态系统中无所不在，在消费性电子产品和嵌入式装置中保持着重要的地位。

了解美洲、欧洲、中东和非洲地区以及亚太地区桥接积体电路的市场动态和成长机会

桥接IC细分市场的地区动态表明，三大地区的采用曲线和投资重点各不相同。在美洲，强大的汽车製造地和不断扩张的资料中心基础设施正在推动对高速通讯协定桥接器的需求。该地区对ADAS（高级驾驶辅助系统）和电动车生产的关注，促使半导体供应商和系统整合商之间的合作日益密切，并重点关注隔离性能和功能安全合规性。

分析领先桥接IC製造商的竞争策略与创新蓝图，塑造高速介面的未来

桥接IC领域的领先製造商的特点是策略重点关注创新、生态系统伙伴关係和端到端支援。多家全球半导体公司正在扩展产品系列，以纳入模组化桥接解决方案，该解决方案将隔离、通讯协定转换和电源管理功能整合在一个封装中。这种整合方法降低了系统复杂性，并加快了设计团队的产品上市时间。

为行业领导者提供可行的策略，以克服桥樑积体电路市场的复杂性并加速技术采用以获得竞争优势

为了保持永续的竞争优势，产业领导者必须优先考虑对下一代介面相容性和自适应供应链机制的策略性投资。加快研发力度，将多重通讯协定功能整合到统一的封装中，将有助于满足对紧凑型高密度连接解决方案日益增长的需求。强调模组化设计架构将实现更高的扩充性和客製化，以满足多样化的最终用户需求。

了解我们强大的多阶段调查方法，该方法结合了三角测量和专家访谈资料的严格检验，以获得准确的市场洞察。

本分析所依据的研究架构采用结构化、多阶段的方法，以确保全面覆盖和资料准确性。首先，进行广泛的二次研究阶段，收集来自监管文件、专利资料库和技术白皮书的公开信息，以建立基准市场参数。在此基础上，我们与半导体公司高阶主管、系统设计师和分销合作伙伴进行了初步研究访谈，以获得对新兴趋势和策略重点的第一手见解。

总结性见解，总结 Bridge IC 生态系统持续成长和创新的关键发现和策略要点

本摘要摘要了塑造桥接积体电路格局的关键主题，从变革性的技术趋势到贸易政策的细微差别。高速通讯协定、先进的隔离技术和多通道架构的集成，凸显了跨不同终端市场的介面解决方案的动态演进。同时，不断变化的关税结构也加剧了对弹性供应链和敏捷製造策略的需求。

目录

第一章：前言

第二章调查方法

第三章执行摘要

第四章 市场概述

第五章市场动态

• 工厂自动化中 CAN-USB 和 SPI-I2C 桥的引入增强了工业通讯协定。
• 可程式设计桥接 IC 越来越受欢迎，为系统设计人员提供了自订硬体配置的灵活性。

第六章 市场洞察

• 波特五力分析
• PESTEL分析

第七章 2025年美国关税的累积影响

第八章桥接IC市场类型

• PCI/PCIe桥接晶片
• SATA介面桥接IC
• USB介面桥接IC

第九章桥接IC市场（依产品类型）

• 电容隔离器
• 数位隔离器
• 数位光耦合器
• 磁隔离器
• 变压器绝缘

第 10 章桥接 IC 市场（按通路类型）

• 双通道
• 多通道
• 四通道
• 单通道

第十一章桥接IC市场应用

• 车
• 医疗保健设备
• 工业自动化
• 电力和能源
• 半导体和电子
• 通讯

第十二章桥接IC市场（依最终用户）

• 售后市场
• OEM

第十三章桥接IC市场（按通路）

• 直销
• 销售代理
• 网上销售

第 14 章：美洲桥接 IC 市场

• 美国
• 加拿大
• 墨西哥
• 巴西
• 阿根廷

第十五章欧洲、中东和非洲桥接 IC 市场

• 英国
• 德国
• 法国
• 俄罗斯
• 义大利
• 西班牙
• 阿拉伯聯合大公国
• 沙乌地阿拉伯
• 南非
• 丹麦
• 荷兰
• 卡达
• 芬兰
• 瑞典
• 奈及利亚
• 埃及
• 土耳其
• 以色列
• 挪威
• 波兰
• 瑞士

16.亚太桥接IC市场

• 中国
• 印度
• 日本
• 澳洲
• 韩国
• 印尼
• 泰国
• 菲律宾
• 马来西亚
• 新加坡
• 越南
• 台湾

第十七章竞争格局

• 2024年市场占有率分析
• 2024年FPNV定位矩阵
• 竞争分析
  • NXP Semiconductors NV
  • Infineon Technologies AG
  • Fujitsu Limited
  • Future Technology Devices International Limited
  • Holtek Semiconductor Inc
  • JMicron Technology Corporation
  • Microchip Technology Inc.
  • Nuvoton Technology Corp
  • ON Semiconductor Corporation
  • Renesas Electronics Corporation
  • Rutronik Elektronische Bauelemente GmbH
  • Texas Instruments Incorporated
  • Toshiba Corporation

第十八章 研究人工智慧

第十九章 研究统计

第二十章 研究联络人

第21章 研究报导

第22章 附录

The Bridge ICs Market was valued at USD 3.24 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow to USD 3.49 billion in 2025, with a CAGR of 8.16%, reaching USD 5.19 billion by 2030.

KEY MARKET STATISTICS
Base Year [2024]	USD 3.24 billion
Estimated Year [2025]	USD 3.49 billion
Forecast Year [2030]	USD 5.19 billion
CAGR (%)	8.16%

Introducing the Critical Role of Bridge Integrated Circuits in Enabling Next-Generation High-Speed Connectivity and System Integration

Bridge integrated circuits, often referred to as bridge ICs, play a pivotal role in modern electronics by enabling seamless communication between disparate system architectures. They function as protocol converters, voltage translators, and signal isolators that ensure data integrity across varying interface standards. As system complexity grows, the demand for robust bridge functionality has intensified, driving innovation in both hardware design and integration approaches.

Global adoption of bridge ICs has been fueled by the proliferation of high-speed interfaces in automotive electronics, industrial automation platforms, and advanced telecommunications infrastructures. These chips offer designers a pathway to integrate legacy systems with next-generation peripherals without extensive redesign efforts. By consolidating interface management into compact, efficient packages, bridge ICs reduce board space, simplify system validation, and lower total cost of ownership.

With trends toward electrification and digitalization in key verticals, the reliability and isolation performance of bridge ICs have become paramount. In automotive applications, isolation barriers must meet stringent functional safety and electromagnetic compatibility standards, while industrial deployments demand resilience against voltage fluctuations and temperature extremes. These requirements have spurred the development of specialized isolation technologies and enhanced thermal performance metrics within bridge IC portfolios.

As we transition into an era defined by interconnected devices and intelligent systems, understanding the evolving role of bridge integrated circuits is essential for decision-makers. The sections that follow dissect transformative market shifts, evaluate policy and tariff effects, and present strategic segmentation and regional analyses. Collectively, these insights aim to equip stakeholders with a comprehensive perspective on how bridge ICs will shape next-generation electronics architectures

Exploring Transformative Technological Shifts Redefining Bridge IC Applications from AI-Driven Automation to 5G-Enabled Industrial Ecosystems

Rapid advancements in digital transformation and emerging communication standards have reshaped the bridge IC landscape over recent years. The convergence of AI-driven automation with industrial Internet of Things platforms has elevated requirements for high-throughput, low-latency data bridges. Simultaneously, the rollout of 5G networks has driven demand for sophisticated front-end modules capable of translating protocols between wireless base stations and digital processing subsystems.

Edge computing initiatives have introduced new complexities, necessitating ICs that can maintain signal integrity across mixed voltage domains while minimizing power consumption. In automotive, the shift toward advanced driver assistance systems and electric vehicles has created a growing need for high-speed data buses that bridge multiple sensor arrays with central control units. This trend has compelled manufacturers to innovate on both capacitor-based isolators and magnetic isolation solutions to support higher data rates and enhanced safety compliance.

Meanwhile, industrial automation has witnessed a transformation from traditional fieldbus architectures to Ethernet-based frameworks. Bridge IC developers have responded by integrating multi-channel interface capabilities into single packages, streamlining board design and reducing bill of materials. These collective shifts are redefining performance benchmarks and setting the stage for the next wave of integration, as ecosystems across healthcare equipment, semiconductors, and power infrastructures demand ever more versatile and reliable bridge solutions

Assessing the Cumulative Effects of 2025 United States Tariffs on Bridge IC Supply Chains Cost Structures and Global Trade Dynamics

In 2025, the implementation of additional tariffs by the United States has introduced a new set of considerations for suppliers and OEMs within the bridge IC market. Increased duty rates on semiconductor components have elevated input costs, prompting companies to reassess supplier contracts and explore alternative sourcing strategies. This environment has reinforced the importance of diversification, as stakeholders seek to mitigate risks associated with concentrated supply chains in regions subject to heightened trade barriers.

Producers have begun to adjust their manufacturing footprints, expanding capacity in tariff-exempt jurisdictions and negotiating value-added service agreements to offset duty impacts. Some have adopted localized assembly models closer to end markets in North America to minimize cross-border cost burdens while maintaining responsiveness to customer demands. This strategic shift has accelerated the adoption of distributed manufacturing networks and fostered closer collaboration with regional distributors and contract manufacturers.

From a pricing perspective, the cumulative effect of new tariffs has eroded traditional margin structures, leading to tighter negotiations on long-term purchase agreements. Buyers are increasingly demanding tariff relief through cost-sharing mechanisms or pass-through clauses within supply contracts. As a result, transparency in cost breakdowns and proactive tariff management have become key differentiators in vendor selection. Looking forward, the ability to forecast tariff trends and incorporate responsive supply chain strategies will be essential for sustaining competitiveness in a dynamic global trade landscape

Unveiling Strategic Market Segmentation Insights Highlighting Critical Demand Drivers Across Bridge IC Types Product Technologies and End User Verticals

The bridge IC market exhibits distinct demand patterns when examined through multiple segmentation lenses, each shedding light on critical growth drivers and technology preferences. When categorized by interface type, PCI and PCIe bridge solutions command attention in high-performance computing and server applications, whereas SATA interface offerings remain integral to legacy storage systems. USB interface bridge circuits sustain relevance across consumer electronics and embedded devices, reflecting their ubiquity in portable and desktop ecosystems.

Examining product technologies reveals divergent trajectories for isolation solutions. Capacitive isolators and digital isolators have gained traction for their compact form factors and high data rates, while digital optocouplers continue to serve niche requirements where extreme voltage isolation is paramount. Magnetic isolators bring robustness and built-in surge protection to industrial systems, and transformer-based isolation modules are favored for high-power applications demanding galvanic separation and noise mitigation.

Channel type segmentation highlights the importance of packaging efficiency and scalability. Single-channel bridge ICs are often the entry point for simple protocol conversion tasks, whereas dual-channel and quad-channel devices optimize board real estate by consolidating multiple data paths. Multi-channel architectures cater to complex system-on-module designs, offering integrated solutions for high-density connectivity in telecommunications and data center environments.

Application-driven segmentation underscores the vast opportunity spaces. Automotive electronics harness bridge ICs for sensor fusion and infotainment systems, while healthcare equipment benefits from precise signal isolation in diagnostic and therapeutic devices. In industrial automation, reliable interfaces underpin process control, and power and energy infrastructures rely on robust isolation to ensure system safety. Semiconductors and electronics manufacturing utilize bridge circuits for test and measurement platforms, and telecommunications networks require seamless protocol translation across backbone and access nodes.

End-user perspectives reveal adoption variances between OEMs favoring integrated design partnerships and aftermarket channels driven by repair and upgrade cycles. Distribution choices further shape market access, with direct sales facilitating tailored solutions, distribution partners broadening geographic reach, and online sales enabling rapid procurement for time-sensitive projects. Collectively, these segmentation insights inform strategic prioritization and product road-mapping efforts

Revealing Regional Market Dynamics and Growth Opportunities for Bridge ICs Across the Americas EMEA and the Asia-Pacific Landscape

Regional dynamics within the bridge IC segment illustrate varied adoption curves and investment priorities across the three principal geographies. In the Americas, strong automotive manufacturing hubs and expanding data center infrastructure have driven demand for high-speed protocol bridges. The region's focus on advanced driver assistance systems and electric vehicle production has placed premium on isolation performance and functional safety compliance, leading to deeper collaboration between semiconductor suppliers and system integrators.

The Europe, Middle East & Africa landscape presents a diverse set of requirements stemming from mature automotive markets, next-generation telecommunications deployments, and industrial automation modernization. European OEMs are increasingly integrating bridge ICs into smart factory solutions and renewable energy platforms, while Middle East and African regions prioritize reliable connectivity for critical power and infrastructure projects. This diversity has fostered tailored certification processes and localized engineering support models.

Asia-Pacific remains a powerhouse for electronics manufacturing and growth-oriented infrastructure initiatives. High production volumes in consumer electronics, coupled with rapid expansion of 5G networks and industrial digitization in key markets, have created substantial volume opportunities for bridge ICs. Strong government investment in semiconductor fabrication and supply chain localization further enhances the region's strategic importance, prompting major players to establish design centers and assembly facilities locally. These varied regional profiles underscore the necessity of geographically nuanced go-to-market strategies for capturing incremental value across global markets

Analyzing Competitive Strategies and Innovation Roadmaps of Leading Bridge IC Manufacturers Shaping the Future of High-Speed Interfaces

Leading manufacturers in the bridge IC domain are distinguished by their strategic focus on innovation, ecosystem partnerships, and end-to-end support. Several global semiconductor firms have expanded their product portfolios to include modular bridge solutions that integrate isolation, protocol translation, and power management functions within single packages. These integrated approaches reduce system complexity and accelerate time-to-market for design teams.

Collaboration with key OEMs and system houses has become a cornerstone of competitive differentiation. By engaging in joint development agreements and offering tailored engineering services, top players ensure that their bridge ICs meet stringent application requirements, from automotive functional safety to industrial environmental tolerances. Moreover, strategic acquisitions and technology licensing deals have enabled some companies to bolster their isolation technology roadmaps and secure critical intellectual property assets.

In parallel, investments in advanced packaging and wafer-level isolation techniques are shaping next-generation offerings. Manufacturers that can demonstrate superior thermal management and signal integrity at elevated data rates are gaining preference among system architects. Additionally, robust customer support infrastructures, including application hotlines and design reference materials, enhance adoption rates and foster long-term relationships. As competitive pressures intensify, the ability to deliver comprehensive solutions and responsive service will continue to define leadership in the bridge IC market

Empowering Industry Leaders with Actionable Strategies to Navigate Bridge IC Market Complexities and Accelerate Technology Adoption for Competitive Advantage

To maintain a sustainable competitive edge, industry leaders must prioritize strategic investments in next-generation interface compatibility and adaptive supply chain mechanisms. Accelerating R&D efforts toward integrating multi-protocol capabilities within a unified package will address growing demands for compact, high-density connectivity solutions. Emphasizing modular design architectures can further enhance scalability and customization for diverse end-user requirements.

Supply chain diversification is equally critical in light of shifting tariff regimes and geopolitical uncertainties. Establishing manufacturing footprints across multiple regions and cultivating relationships with alternative foundries and contract manufacturers will mitigate exposure to localized disruptions. Proactive tariff management, including real-time cost modeling and collaborative cost-sharing agreements, can safeguard margins and reinforce customer trust.

Fostering ecosystem partnerships with OEMs, distribution channels, and technology consortia will drive co-innovation and optimize market entry strategies. Engaging in co-development programs with automotive and industrial system integrators ensures that bridge IC roadmaps align with evolving standards and safety protocols. Lastly, investing in comprehensive training and support resources for design engineers will accelerate technology adoption, reduce design cycles, and strengthen brand reputation in a rapidly evolving marketplace

Detailing a Robust Multi-Phase Research Methodology Combining Expert Interviews Data Triangulation and Rigorous Validation for Accurate Market Insights

The research framework underpinning this analysis combines a structured multi-phase approach to ensure comprehensive coverage and data accuracy. Initially, an extensive secondary research phase collated publicly available information from regulatory filings, patent databases, and technical white papers to establish baseline market parameters. This foundation was augmented by primary research interviews with semiconductor executives, system architects, and distribution partners to capture firsthand insights into emerging trends and strategic priorities.

Data triangulation methodologies were employed to validate inputs across multiple sources, ensuring consistency between qualitative findings and quantitative metrics. A rigorous assessment of tariff schedules, certification requirements, and interface standards provided contextual depth for evaluating policy impacts and technological shifts. Detailed case studies and benchmark analyses offered practical perspectives on successful bridge IC implementations across key verticals.

Throughout the process, a cross-functional review committee comprising industry experts and academic advisors scrutinized methodologies and findings, reinforcing the study's objectivity and relevance. This robust validation protocol guarantees that conclusions and recommendations presented herein rest on a solid evidentiary foundation, enabling stakeholders to make informed strategic decisions with confidence

Concluding Insights Summarizing Key Findings and Strategic Imperatives for Sustained Growth and Innovation in the Bridge IC Ecosystem

This summary encapsulates the pivotal themes shaping the bridge integrated circuits landscape, from transformative technological trends to the nuanced implications of trade policies. The integration of high-speed protocols, advanced isolation technologies, and multi-channel architectures underscores the dynamic evolution of interface solutions across diverse end markets. In parallel, shifting tariff structures have reinforced the need for resilient supply chains and agile manufacturing strategies.

Segmentation insights highlight the varied performance and application requirements across interface types, product technologies, and end-user verticals, providing a granular understanding of demand drivers. Regional analyses reveal distinctive growth trajectories in the Americas, EMEA, and Asia-Pacific, emphasizing the importance of tailored market approaches. Competitive assessments of leading players shed light on the strategic imperatives of innovation, partnership, and customer support excellence.

Collectively, these findings point to a market characterized by rapid innovation and strategic complexity. Success will hinge on an organization's ability to synchronize product development with evolving regulatory landscapes, operationalize diversified sourcing models, and cultivate deep collaborations across the value chain. Armed with these insights, industry participants are well positioned to navigate uncertainties and capitalize on emerging opportunities in the bridge IC domain

Table of Contents

1. Preface

• 1.1. Objectives of the Study
• 1.2. Market Segmentation & Coverage
• 1.3. Years Considered for the Study
• 1.4. Currency & Pricing
• 1.5. Language
• 1.6. Stakeholders

2. Research Methodology

• 2.1. Define: Research Objective
• 2.2. Determine: Research Design
• 2.3. Prepare: Research Instrument
• 2.4. Collect: Data Source
• 2.5. Analyze: Data Interpretation
• 2.6. Formulate: Data Verification
• 2.7. Publish: Research Report
• 2.8. Repeat: Report Update

3. Executive Summary

4. Market Overview

• 4.1. Introduction
• 4.2. Market Sizing & Forecasting

5. Market Dynamics

• 5.1. Deployment of can-to-usb and spi-to-i2c bridges in factory automation, enhancing industrial communication protocols
• 5.2. Increasing preference for programmable bridge ics, offering flexibility for system designers in custom hardware configurations.

6. Market Insights

• 6.1. Porter's Five Forces Analysis
• 6.2. PESTLE Analysis

7. Cumulative Impact of United States Tariffs 2025

8. Bridge ICs Market, by Type

• 8.1. Introduction
• 8.2. PCI / PCIe Bridge ICs
• 8.3. SATA interface Bridge ICs
• 8.4. USB interface Bridge ICs

9. Bridge ICs Market, by Product Type

• 9.1. Introduction
• 9.2. Capacitive Isolator
• 9.3. Digital Isolator
• 9.4. Digital Optocoupler
• 9.5. Magnetic Isolator
• 9.6. Transformer Isolation

10. Bridge ICs Market, by Channel Type

• 10.1. Introduction
• 10.2. Dual Channel
• 10.3. Multi-Channel
• 10.4. Quad Channel
• 10.5. Single Channel

11. Bridge ICs Market, by Application

• 11.1. Introduction
• 11.2. Automotive
• 11.3. Healthcare Equipment
• 11.4. Industrial Automation
• 11.5. Power & Energy
• 11.6. Semiconductors And Electronics
• 11.7. Telecommunications

12. Bridge ICs Market, by End User

• 12.1. Introduction
• 12.2. Aftermarket
• 12.3. OEM

13. Bridge ICs Market, by Distribution Channel

• 13.1. Introduction
• 13.2. Direct Sales
• 13.3. Distribution
• 13.4. Online Sales

14. Americas Bridge ICs Market

• 14.1. Introduction
• 14.2. United States
• 14.3. Canada
• 14.4. Mexico
• 14.5. Brazil
• 14.6. Argentina

15. Europe, Middle East & Africa Bridge ICs Market

• 15.1. Introduction
• 15.2. United Kingdom
• 15.3. Germany
• 15.4. France
• 15.5. Russia
• 15.6. Italy
• 15.7. Spain
• 15.8. United Arab Emirates
• 15.9. Saudi Arabia
• 15.10. South Africa
• 15.11. Denmark
• 15.12. Netherlands
• 15.13. Qatar
• 15.14. Finland
• 15.15. Sweden
• 15.16. Nigeria
• 15.17. Egypt
• 15.18. Turkey
• 15.19. Israel
• 15.20. Norway
• 15.21. Poland
• 15.22. Switzerland

16. Asia-Pacific Bridge ICs Market

• 16.1. Introduction
• 16.2. China
• 16.3. India
• 16.4. Japan
• 16.5. Australia
• 16.6. South Korea
• 16.7. Indonesia
• 16.8. Thailand
• 16.9. Philippines
• 16.10. Malaysia
• 16.11. Singapore
• 16.12. Vietnam
• 16.13. Taiwan

17. Competitive Landscape

• 17.1. Market Share Analysis, 2024
• 17.2. FPNV Positioning Matrix, 2024
• 17.3. Competitive Analysis
  • 17.3.1. NXP Semiconductors NV
  • 17.3.2. Infineon Technologies AG
  • 17.3.3. Fujitsu Limited
  • 17.3.4. Future Technology Devices International Limited
  • 17.3.5. Holtek Semiconductor Inc
  • 17.3.6. JMicron Technology Corporation
  • 17.3.7. Microchip Technology Inc.
  • 17.3.8. Nuvoton Technology Corp
  • 17.3.9. ON Semiconductor Corporation
  • 17.3.10. Renesas Electronics Corporation
  • 17.3.11. Rutronik Elektronische Bauelemente GmbH
  • 17.3.12. Texas Instruments Incorporated
  • 17.3.13. Toshiba Corporation

18. ResearchAI

19. ResearchStatistics

20. ResearchContacts

21. ResearchArticles

22. Appendix