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市场调查报告书
商品编码
1551256

2030 年巩膜镜市场预测：按产品、材料、分销管道、应用、最终用户和地区进行的全球分析

Scleral Lens Market Forecasts to 2030 - Global Analysis By Product, Material, Distribution Channel, Application, End User and By Geography
出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 200+ Pages | 商品交期: 2-3个工作天内

价格

根据 Stratistics MRC 的数据，2024 年全球巩膜镜片市场规模为 3.1258 亿美元，预计预测期内复合年增长率为 12.4%，到 2030 年将达到 7.5061 亿美元。

巩膜镜是一种大直径隐形眼镜，旨在覆盖整个角膜表面并放置在巩膜（眼球的白色部分）上。巩膜镜可保护角膜并提供稳定角膜的液体垫，从而改善角膜不规则、严重干眼和其他角膜疾病患者的视力和舒适度。其设计有助于治疗圆锥角膜等病症，也可用于矫正视力和提高舒适度。

根据干眼目录公布的资料，2020年约有1,640万美国人患有干眼症，约占总人口的6.8%。

角膜疾病盛行率上升

圆锥角膜和角膜营养不良等角膜疾病的日益普及增加了对传统镜片无法充分解决的专业视力矫正解决方案的需求。巩膜镜透过覆盖角膜并形成保护液层来提供卓越的舒适度并改善视力。随着患者和眼部保健专业人员寻求先进的解决方案来改善视力和生活质量，对角膜疾病有效管理的需求不断增长，正在推动市场扩张。

安装过程复杂

巩膜镜片的复杂验配过程需要精确的测量和调整，以确保正确贴合，因为镜片覆盖整个角膜并放置在巩膜顶部。这种复杂性源于需要客自订尺寸和对齐，以防止不适并确保最佳性能。详细的组装程序需要专门的设备和专业知识，既耗时又昂贵。由于时间、成本和专门培训要求的增加，这种复杂性可能会疏远潜在用户和眼保健专业人员，从而限制市场成长。

人口老化加剧

老年人通常患有与老龄化相关的眼科疾病，例如干眼症、老花眼和圆锥角膜。由于角膜表面随着老龄化的增长而变化，巩膜镜透过提供出色的视力矫正和敏感眼睛的保护屏障，提供了舒适且有效的解决方案。老年族群对先进视力保健解决方案的需求不断增长，加上对维持生活品质的兴趣日益浓厚，正在推动市场扩张。此外，老年人更有可能寻求专业眼科护理，进一步刺激巩膜镜的成长。

保险范围有限

巩膜镜的保险范围有限，因为许多保险计划将其归类为可选或特殊项目，通常将其排除在标准保险范围之外。这种限制增加了患者的自付费用，并使那些没有足够经济能力的人更难获得巩膜镜。高额费用可能会疏远潜在用户并限制市场成长，因为许多人可能会选择更实惠的替代品。因此，有限的保险范围阻碍了巩膜镜市场的采用并减缓了其整体扩张。

COVID-19 的影响

由于关闭和社交距离措施，COVID-19 暂时减少了选择性眼科检查和镜片验配，从而影响了巩膜镜片市场。然而，在大流行期间，萤幕时间的增加和对眼睛健康的兴趣增强，提高了人们对眼睛相关问题的认识，包括那些可以透过巩膜镜解决的问题。随着法规的放鬆，市场开始復苏，人们对长期眼睛舒适解决方案和远端医疗咨询的兴趣增加，促进了市场的復苏和成长。

干眼症领域预计在预测期内规模最大

干眼症产业预计将出现良好的成长。巩膜镜在治疗干眼症方面非常有效，因为它们在角膜上形​​成保护屏障，并在水晶体和眼睛之间形成一层润滑液。这款气垫可以帮助您保持水分并减少刺激，从而缓解症状。与传统隐形眼镜不同，巩膜镜不会接触到角膜，从而最大限度地减少不适并提高稳定性。巩膜镜设计可显着缓解严重干眼症患者的症状，提升整体舒适度和视觉清晰度。

预计成人市场在预测期内复合年增长率最高

预计成人市场在预测期内将以最高复合年增长率成长。巩膜镜越来越多地用于成人，以解决各种视力和舒适度问题。巩膜镜对于患有圆锥角膜、角膜不规则和严重干眼症等疾病的人特别有益，可以改善视力和眼睛舒适度。巩膜镜覆盖整个角膜并固定在巩膜上，提供稳定性和一致的视力矫正。这对于寻求可靠的长期解决方案来解决复杂眼部问题的成年人或对传统镜片感到不适的人来说极为重要。

比例最高的地区：

由于眼睛健康意识的提高和角膜疾病盛行率的增加，亚太地区的巩膜镜市场正在显着成长。镜片技术和客製化的进步正在推动市场扩张，特别是在中国、印度和日本等对专业眼科护理需求不断增长的国家。这是因为该地区人口众多、人口老化以及先进医疗设备的引进。不断扩大的医疗基础设施和越来越多的训练有素的眼保健专业人员正在支持市场，并有助于巩膜镜的广泛采用和采用。

复合年增长率最高的地区：

在北美，由于先进眼部护理解决方案的高度认知和采用，巩膜镜市场正在迅速扩大。角膜疾病和干眼症的流行正在推动该地区对巩膜镜的需求。该地区发达的医疗基础设施和熟练的眼保健专业人员使巩膜镜易于获取和客製化。寻求长期视力矫正解决方案和提高生活品质的患者的接受度不断提高，进一步推动了北美市场的成长。

免费客製化服务：

订阅此报告的客户将收到以下免费自订选项之一：

  • 公司简介
    • 其他市场参与者的综合分析（最多 3 家公司）
    • 主要企业SWOT分析（最多3家企业）
  • 区域分割
    • 根据客户兴趣对主要国家的市场估计、预测和复合年增长率（註：基于可行性检查）
  • 竞争标基准化分析
    • 根据产品系列、地理分布和策略联盟对主要企业基准化分析

目录

第一章执行摘要

第二章 前言

  • 概述
  • 相关利益者
  • 调查范围
  • 调查方法
    • 资料探勘
    • 资料分析
    • 资料检验
    • 研究途径
  • 研究资讯来源
    • 主要研究资讯来源
    • 二次研究资讯来源
    • 先决条件

第三章市场趋势分析

  • 促进因素
  • 抑制因素
  • 机会
  • 威胁
  • 产品分析
  • 应用分析
  • 最终用户分析
  • 新兴市场
  • COVID-19 的影响

第4章波特五力分析

  • 供应商的议价能力
  • 买方议价能力
  • 替代品的威胁
  • 新进入者的威胁
  • 竞争公司之间的敌对关係

第五章全球巩膜镜市场：按产品

  • 渗透性透气 (RGP) 巩膜镜
  • 自订巩膜镜
  • 透气渗透性镜
  • 混合巩膜镜
  • 其他产品

第六章全球巩膜镜市场：依材质分类

  • 硅胶水凝胶
  • 传统水凝胶
  • PMMA（聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯）
  • 硅胶丙烯酸酯
  • 其他材料

第七章全球巩膜镜市场：依通路分类

  • 医院
  • 眼科诊所
  • 验光诊所
  • 零售药房
  • 其他分销管道

第八章全球巩膜镜市场：依应用分类

  • 圆锥角膜
  • 干眼症
  • 术后使用
  • 角膜异常
  • 其他用途

第九章全球巩膜镜市场：依最终用户分类

  • 儿科的
  • 成人
  • 老年人

第十章全球巩膜镜市场：按地区

  • 北美洲
    • 美国
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 欧洲
    • 德国
    • 英国
    • 义大利
    • 法国
    • 西班牙
    • 其他欧洲国家
  • 亚太地区
    • 日本
    • 中国
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 纽西兰
    • 韩国
    • 其他亚太地区
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 南美洲其他地区
  • 中东/非洲
    • 沙乌地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公国
    • 卡达
    • 南非
    • 其他中东和非洲

第十一章 主要进展

  • 合约、伙伴关係、合作和合资企业
  • 收购和合併
  • 新产品发布
  • 业务拓展
  • 其他关键策略

第十二章 公司概况

  • Johnson & Johnson Vision Care
  • Alcon Laboratories, Inc.
  • Bausch+Lomb
  • CooperVision
  • Menicon Co., Ltd.
  • EssilorLuxottica
  • UltraVision CLPL
  • Euclid Systems Corporation
  • Art Optical Contact Lens, Inc.
  • Blanchard Contact Lenses, Inc.
  • Rising Star Optical
  • Ziemer Ophthalmic Systems
  • Visionary Optics
  • Gelflex
  • SynergEyes
Product Code: SMRC27039

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Scleral Lens Market is accounted for $312.58 million in 2024 and is expected to reach $750.61 million by 2030 growing at a CAGR of 12.4% during the forecast period. A scleral lens is a large-diameter contact lens designed to cover the entire corneal surface and rest on the sclera (the white part of the eye). Scleral lenses vault over the cornea, providing a cushion of fluid that can protect and stabilize the cornea, improving vision and comfort for individuals with irregular corneas, severe dry eye, or other corneal conditions. Their design helps in managing conditions such as keratoconus and can also be used for enhanced vision correction and comfort.

According to data published by Dry Eye Directory, in 2020, around 16.4 million Americans were suffering from dry eye, representing around 6.8% of the total population.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Rising prevalence of corneal disorders

The rising prevalence of corneal disorders, such as keratoconus and corneal dystrophies increases demand for specialized vision correction solutions that traditional lenses cannot adequately address. Scleral lenses provide superior comfort and vision improvement by covering the cornea and creating a protective layer of fluid. This heightened need for effective management of corneal disorders drives market expansion, as both patients and eye care professionals seek advanced solutions to enhance visual acuity and quality of life for those affected.

Restraint:

Complex fitting process

The complex fitting process for scleral lenses involves precise measurements and adjustments to ensure a proper fit, as the lenses cover the entire cornea and rest on the sclera. This complexity arises from the need for custom sizing and alignment to prevent discomfort and ensure optimal performance. The detailed fitting procedure requires specialized equipment and expertise, which can be time-consuming and costly. This complexity can limit market growth by deterring potential users and eye care professionals due to the increased time, cost, and need for specialized training.

Opportunity:

Increase in aging population

Older adults commonly experience age-related eye conditions such as dry eye, presbyopia, and keratoconus. As the corneal surface changes with age, scleral lenses provide a comfortable and effective solution by offering superior vision correction and a protective barrier for sensitive eyes. The aging demographic's rising demand for advanced vision care solutions, coupled with a growing focus on maintaining quality of life, drives market expansion. Additionally, older adults are more likely to seek specialized eye care, further fueling the growth of scleral lenses.

Threat:

Limited insurance coverage

Limited insurance coverage for scleral lenses occurs because many insurance plans categorize them as elective or specialty items, often excluding them from standard coverage. This restriction results in higher out-of-pocket costs for patients, making scleral lenses less accessible for those without sufficient financial resources. The high expense can deter potential users and limit market growth, as many individuals may opt for more affordable alternatives. Consequently, the limited insurance coverage hampers widespread adoption and slows the overall expansion of the scleral lens market.

Covid-19 Impact

Covid-19 impacted the scleral lens market by temporarily reducing elective eye care visits and lens fittings due to lockdowns and social distancing measures. However, increased screen time and a heightened focus on eye health during the pandemic boosted awareness of eye-related issues, including those addressed by scleral lenses. The market saw a rebound as restrictions eased, with growing interest in long-term eye comfort solutions and telehealth consultations contributing to recovery and growth.

The dry eye syndrome segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

The dry eye syndrome segment is estimated to have a lucrative growth. Scleral lenses are highly effective for managing dry eye syndrome as they create a protective barrier over the cornea, trapping a layer of lubricating fluid between the lens and the eye. This cushioning helps to alleviate symptoms by maintaining moisture and reducing irritation. Unlike traditional contact lenses, scleral lenses do not touch the cornea, which minimizes discomfort and enhances stability. Their design provides significant relief for individuals with severe dry eye, improving overall comfort and visual clarity.

The adult segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

The adult segment is anticipated to witness the highest CAGR growth during the forecast period. Scleral lenses are increasingly used in adults for addressing various vision and comfort issues. They are particularly beneficial for individuals with conditions like keratoconus, irregular corneas, or severe dry eye, providing enhanced visual acuity and eye comfort. Scleral lenses offer stability and consistent vision correction by covering the entire cornea and resting on the sclera, which can be crucial for adults seeking reliable, long-term solutions for complex eye conditions or for those who experience discomfort with traditional lenses.

Region with largest share:

The scleral lens market in the Asia-Pacific region is experiencing notable growth due to rising awareness about eye health and increasing prevalence of corneal disorders. Advancements in lens technology and customization are driving market expansion, particularly in countries like China, India, and Japan, where demand for specialized eye care is growing. The region benefits from a large and aging population, heightened by the increasing adoption of advanced medical devices. The market is supported by expanding healthcare infrastructure and a growing number of trained eye care professionals, contributing to the widespread availability and adoption of scleral lenses.

Region with highest CAGR:

In North America, the scleral lens market is expanding rapidly due to high awareness and adoption of advanced eye care solutions. The prevalence of corneal conditions and dry eye is driving demand for scleral lenses in the region. The region benefits from well-established healthcare infrastructure and a large number of skilled eye care professionals, leading to increased accessibility and customization of scleral lenses. Growing acceptance among patients seeking long-term vision correction solutions and improved quality of life further supports market growth in North America.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players profiled in the Scleral Lens Market include Johnson & Johnson Vision Care, Alcon Laboratories, Inc., Bausch + Lomb, CooperVision, Menicon Co., Ltd., EssilorLuxottica, UltraVision CLPL, Euclid Systems Corporation, Art Optical Contact Lens, Inc., Blanchard Contact Lenses, Inc., Rising Star Optical, Ziemer Ophthalmic Systems, Visionary Optics, Gelflex and SynergEyes.

Key Developments:

In May 2024, Bausch + Lomb Corporation announced the U.S. launch of Zenlens ECHO, a non-prosthetic, custom scleral contact lens technology designed to fit a wide variety of corneal shapes and sizes, including patients who have advanced ocular conditions such as corneal degeneration and certain postoperative conditions.

In February 2023, Visionary Optics has launched Europa Tangent, a new scleral lens that provides customizable design and a three-zone step-system for optimal fitting. the lens design was based on clinical experience and analysis of data from more than 10,000 fittings. It includes one landing zone curve, which follows the natural contour of the scleral surface and provides a smoother, softer transition to the landing zone.

Products Covered:

  • Rigid Gas Permeable (RGP) Scleral Lenses
  • Custom Scleral Lenses
  • Gas Permeable Scleral Lenses
  • Hybrid Scleral Lenses
  • Other Products

Materials Covered:

  • Silicone Hydrogel
  • Traditional Hydrogel
  • PMMA (Polymethyl Methacrylate)
  • Fluoro-silicone Acrylate
  • Other Materials

Distribution Channels Covered:

  • Hospitals
  • Eye Clinics
  • Optometry Offices
  • Retail Pharmacies
  • Other Distribution Channels

Applications Covered:

  • Keratoconus
  • Dry Eye Syndrome
  • Post-Surgical Applications
  • Irregular Cornea
  • Other Applications

End Users Covered:

  • Pediatric
  • Adult
  • Geriatric

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2022, 2023, 2024, 2026, and 2030
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 Product Analysis
  • 3.7 Application Analysis
  • 3.8 End User Analysis
  • 3.9 Emerging Markets
  • 3.10 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Scleral Lens Market, By Product

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Rigid Gas Permeable (RGP) Scleral Lenses
  • 5.3 Custom Scleral Lenses
  • 5.4 Gas Permeable Scleral Lenses
  • 5.5 Hybrid Scleral Lenses
  • 5.6 Other Products

6 Global Scleral Lens Market, By Material

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Silicone Hydrogel
  • 6.3 Traditional Hydrogel
  • 6.4 PMMA (Polymethyl Methacrylate)
  • 6.5 Fluoro-silicone Acrylate
  • 6.6 Other Materials

7 Global Scleral Lens Market, By Distribution Channel

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Hospitals
  • 7.3 Eye Clinics
  • 7.4 Optometry Offices
  • 7.5 Retail Pharmacies
  • 7.6 Other Distribution Channels

8 Global Scleral Lens Market, By Application

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Keratoconus
  • 8.3 Dry Eye Syndrome
  • 8.4 Post-Surgical Applications
  • 8.5 Irregular Cornea
  • 8.6 Other Applications

9 Global Scleral Lens Market, By End User

  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 Pediatric
  • 9.3 Adult
  • 9.4 Geriatric

10 Global Scleral Lens Market, By Geography

  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 North America
    • 10.2.1 US
    • 10.2.2 Canada
    • 10.2.3 Mexico
  • 10.3 Europe
    • 10.3.1 Germany
    • 10.3.2 UK
    • 10.3.3 Italy
    • 10.3.4 France
    • 10.3.5 Spain
    • 10.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 10.4 Asia Pacific
    • 10.4.1 Japan
    • 10.4.2 China
    • 10.4.3 India
    • 10.4.4 Australia
    • 10.4.5 New Zealand
    • 10.4.6 South Korea
    • 10.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 10.5 South America
    • 10.5.1 Argentina
    • 10.5.2 Brazil
    • 10.5.3 Chile
    • 10.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 10.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 10.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 10.6.2 UAE
    • 10.6.3 Qatar
    • 10.6.4 South Africa
    • 10.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

11 Key Developments

  • 11.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 11.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 11.3 New Product Launch
  • 11.4 Expansions
  • 11.5 Other Key Strategies

12 Company Profiling

  • 12.1 Johnson & Johnson Vision Care
  • 12.2 Alcon Laboratories, Inc.
  • 12.3 Bausch + Lomb
  • 12.4 CooperVision
  • 12.5 Menicon Co., Ltd.
  • 12.6 EssilorLuxottica
  • 12.7 UltraVision CLPL
  • 12.8 Euclid Systems Corporation
  • 12.9 Art Optical Contact Lens, Inc.
  • 12.10 Blanchard Contact Lenses, Inc.
  • 12.11 Rising Star Optical
  • 12.12 Ziemer Ophthalmic Systems
  • 12.13 Visionary Optics
  • 12.14 Gelflex
  • 12.15 SynergEyes

List of Tables

  • Table 1 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Region (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 2 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Product (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 3 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Rigid Gas Permeable (RGP) Scleral Lenses (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 4 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Custom Scleral Lenses (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 5 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Gas Permeable Scleral Lenses (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 6 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Hybrid Scleral Lenses (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 7 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Other Products (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 8 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Material (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 9 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Silicone Hydrogel (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 10 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Traditional Hydrogel (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 11 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By PMMA (Polymethyl Methacrylate) (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 12 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Fluoro-silicone Acrylate (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 13 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Other Materials (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 14 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Distribution Channel (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 15 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Hospitals (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 16 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Eye Clinics (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 17 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Optometry Offices (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 18 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Retail Pharmacies (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 19 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Other Distribution Channels (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 20 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Application (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 21 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Keratoconus (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 22 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Dry Eye Syndrome (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 23 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Post-Surgical Applications (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 24 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Irregular Cornea (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 25 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Other Applications (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 26 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By End User (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 27 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Pediatric (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 28 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Adult (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 29 Global Scleral Lens Market Outlook, By Geriatric (2022-2030) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.