查看购物车
  • Traditional Chinese
  • English
  • Japanese
  • Korean
封面
市场调查报告书
商品编码
1558263

到 2030 年单位剂量包装市场预测：按产品、材料、分销管道、应用、最终用户和地区进行的全球分析

Unit Dose Packaging Market Forecasts to 2030 - Global Analysis By Product (Blister Packs, Vials, Ampoules, Pre-filled Syringes, Pouches, Bottles and Other Products), Material, Distribution Channel, Application, End User and By Geography
出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 200+ Pages | 商品交期: 2-3个工作天内

价格

根据 Stratistics MRC 的数据，2024 年全球单位剂量包装市场规模为 305.2 亿美元，预计到 2030 年将达到 452.9 亿美元，预测期内复合年增长率为 9.5%。

单位剂量包装是一种包装药品和其他产品的方法，其中每个剂量单独包装在一次性容器中。此系统可确保准确剂量，最大限度地降低污染风险，并透过防止误用和意外用药过量来提高病患安全。单位剂量包装通常用于医疗保健环境，可简化剂量并有助于库存管理。每个单位剂量都经过预先测量和标记，使医疗保健提供者更容易追踪药物并确保遵守规定的治疗。

印度品牌股权基金会（IBEF）2021年6月发布的报告显示，印度製药业占全球各类疫苗需求的50%以上，占美国非专利需求的40%，占英国整体药品供应量的25%以上。

慢性病增加

慢性疾病通常需要长期一致的治疗方法，而准确的剂量对于有效的治疗至关重要。单位剂量包装可确保患者每次都收到正确的剂量，从而降低用药错误的风险并提高用药依从性。这种包装形式对于那些难以应对复杂用药方案的老年人和慢性疾病患者特别有益，提高了患者的安全性和便利性。随着慢性病变得越来越普遍，对单位剂量包装的需求也不断增加。

监管障碍

由于不同地区和国家对安全性、有效性和品管的严格要求不同，单位剂量包装面临监管障碍。这些法规要求严格的测试、记录和遵守标准，使得开发和核准过程复杂且成本高昂。这些监管挑战可能会延迟产品发布、增加製造成本并限制新参与企业的市场准入。因此，这些因素可能会限制技术创新的步伐并增加製造商的财务负担，从而阻碍市场成长。

医疗保健设施的成长

医院、诊所和长期照护中心等医疗保健设施的激增增加了对高效、安全的药品分配系统的需求。随着更多设施的建立，对准确、随时给药的剂量的需求增加，推动了单位剂量包装的采用。这种包装方法对于扩大医疗保健环境以支持简化操作、减少用药错误和提高患者安全至关重要。

製造成本高

由于单一容器设计和製造、精确剂量机制和品管措施的复杂性，单位剂量包装的製造成本更高。对特殊材料和技术（例如阻隔膜和防窃启密封件）的需求也导致成本增加。这些成本增加可能会影响整体盈利和定价，使单位剂量包装与散装替代品相比吸引力下降。因此，不断上升的製造成本可能会限制市场采用，特别是在成本敏感地区，并阻碍单位剂量包装市场的成长。

COVID-19 的影响

由于单位剂量包装在提高安全性和降低交叉污染风险方面的作用，COVID-19 大流行增加了对单位剂量包装的需求。对准确剂量和感染控制的需求促使医疗保健机构更广泛地采用单位剂量系统。然而，供应链中断和原材料成本上涨成为问题。此次疫情也加速了包装自动化和数位解决方案的发展趋势，以管理大量药品并确保高效配送。

预填充式注射器细分市场预计将成为预测期内最大的细分市场

预计预填充式注射器细分市场在预测期内将是最大的。单位剂量包装的预填充式注射器为给药提供了方便、准确的解决方案。每个注射器都预先计量了单剂量的药物，减少了剂量错误和污染的风险。这种包装方法透过简化管理流程和提高病人安全来提高医疗机构的效率。它对于生物製剂、疫苗和慢性病药物特别有用，可确保医疗保健专业人员和患者的剂量准确且易于使用。

生物製品产业预计在预测期内复合年增长率最高。

生物製品领域预计在预测期内复合年增长率最高。 Biologic 的单位剂量包装可确保复杂药物的准确和安全剂量。这种包装方法为每个剂量提供一次性容器，最大限度地减少污染和剂量错误的风险。它对于生物製剂特别有用，其脆弱的性质通常需要严格的处理和精确的剂量。透过简化准备工作并降低交叉污染的风险，单位剂量包装可提高病患的安全性和依从性，同时提高医疗机构的效率。

占比最高的地区

在亚太地区，单位剂量包装市场正在迅速扩大，由于医疗基础设施的不断增加、对患者安全的日益关注以及慢性病的流行，预计将占据最大的市场占有率。该地区的製药业多元化，对高效、准确的给药系统的需求不断增长。先进封装技术的创新和严格的法规进一步支持市场成长。此外，医院、诊所和疗养院的扩张正在推动对单位剂量解决方案的需求，以加强该地区各国的药物管理和患者照护。

复合年增长率最高的地区：

在北美，由于对患者安全、监管要求和技术进步的强烈关注，单位剂量包装市场正在经历显着成长。该地区强大的医疗基础设施和慢性病的高盛行率推动了对准确、高效的药物管理系统的需求。包装技术的创新和对减少用药错误的日益关注也推动了市场的扩张。此外，医疗机构数量的增加、库存管理的改善和用药依从性也促进了北美市场的成长。

提供免费客製化：

订阅此报告的客户可以存取以下免费自订选项之一：

  • 公司简介
    • 其他市场参与者的综合分析（最多 3 家公司）
    • 主要企业SWOT分析（最多3家）
  • 区域分割
    • 根据客户兴趣对主要国家的市场估计、预测和复合年增长率（註：基于可行性检查）
  • 竞争标基准化分析
    • 根据产品系列、地理分布和策略联盟对主要企业基准化分析

目录

第一章执行摘要

第二章 前言

  • 概述
  • 相关利益者
  • 调查范围
  • 调查方法
    • 资料探勘
    • 资料分析
    • 资料检验
    • 研究途径
  • 研究资讯来源
    • 主要研究资讯来源
    • 二次研究资讯来源
    • 先决条件

第三章市场趋势分析

  • 促进因素
  • 抑制因素
  • 机会
  • 威胁
  • 产品分析
  • 应用分析
  • 最终用户分析
  • 新兴市场
  • COVID-19 的影响

第4章波特五力分析

  • 供应商的议价能力
  • 买方议价能力
  • 替代品的威胁
  • 新进入者的威胁
  • 竞争公司之间的敌对关係

第五章全球单位剂量包装市场：依产品

  • 泡壳包装
  • 管瓶
  • 安瓿
  • 预填充式注射器
  • 小袋
  • 瓶子
  • 其他产品

第六章全球单位剂量包装市场：依材料分类

  • 塑胶
  • 纸板
  • 玻璃
  • 金属
  • 其他材料

第七章全球单位剂量包装市场：依分销管道

  • 直销
  • 网上销售
  • 第三方卖家
  • 其他分销管道

第八章全球单位剂量包装市场：依应用

  • 生物的
  • 非处方药 (OTC)
  • 营养保健品
  • 其他用途

第九章全球单位剂量包装市场：依最终用户分类

  • 医院
  • 长期照护设施
  • 居家照护环境
  • 其他最终用户

第十章全球单位剂量包装市场：按地区

  • 北美洲
    • 美国
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 欧洲
    • 德国
    • 英国
    • 义大利
    • 法国
    • 西班牙
    • 其他欧洲国家
  • 亚太地区
    • 日本
    • 中国
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 纽西兰
    • 韩国
    • 其他亚太地区
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 南美洲其他地区
  • 中东/非洲
    • 沙乌地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公国
    • 卡达
    • 南非
    • 其他中东和非洲

第十一章 主要进展

  • 合约、伙伴关係、协作和合资企业
  • 收购和合併
  • 新产品发布
  • 业务拓展
  • 其他关键策略

第十二章 公司概况

  • BD（Becton, Dickinson and Company）
  • Gerresheimer AG
  • West Pharmaceutical Services Inc.
  • Nemera
  • MediSafe
  • Omnicare Inc.
  • AccuStar Packaging
  • Schaefer Technologies Inc.
  • Pharmapack
  • Paragon Healthcare
  • Lonza
  • Trellis Pharma
  • Systech International
  • Vetter Pharma-Fertigung GmbH & Co. KG
  • Uhlmann Pac-Systeme GmbH & Co. KG
  • Jones Healthcare
Product Code: SMRC27124

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Unit Dose Packaging Market is accounted for $30.52 billion in 2024 and is expected to reach $45.29 billion by 2030 growing at a CAGR of 9.5% during the forecast period. Unit dose packaging refers to a method of packaging pharmaceuticals or other products where each dose is individually packaged in a single-use container. This system ensures accurate dosing, minimizes the risk of contamination, and enhances patient safety by preventing misuse or accidental overdose. Typically used in healthcare settings, unit dose packaging simplifies administration and helps with inventory management. Each unit dose is pre-measured and labeled, making it easier for healthcare providers to track medication and ensure compliance with prescribed treatments.

According to the report published in June 2021 by the India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF), the Indian pharmaceutical sector supplies more than 50% of the global demand for various vaccines, 40% of the generic demand in the U.S., and over 25% of total medicines in the U.K.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Rising chronic diseases

Chronic conditions often require long-term, consistent treatment regimens, making accurate dosing essential for effective management. Unit dose packaging ensures that patients receive the correct dose every time, reducing the risk of medication errors and improving adherence. This packaging format is particularly beneficial for elderly and chronically ill patients, who may struggle with complex medication schedules, thus enhancing their safety and convenience. As chronic diseases become more common, the demand for unit dose packaging continues to grow.

Restraint:

Regulatory hurdles

Unit dose packaging faces regulatory hurdles due to stringent requirements for safety, efficacy, and quality control, which vary by region and country. These regulations mandate rigorous testing, documentation, and compliance with standards, making the development and approval process complex and costly. Such regulatory challenges can delay product launches, increase production costs, and restrict market entry for new players. Consequently, these factors can hamper market growth by limiting the pace of innovation and increasing the financial burden on manufacturers.

Opportunity:

Growth in healthcare facilities

The growth in healthcare facilities, including hospitals, clinics, and long-term care centers, increases the demand for efficient and safe medication distribution systems. As more facilities are established, the need for precise, ready-to-administer medication doses rises, driving the adoption of unit dose packaging. This packaging method supports streamlined operations, reduces medication errors, and enhances patient safety, making it essential in expanding healthcare settings.

Threat:

High production costs

Unit dose packaging incurs high production costs due to the complexity of designing and manufacturing individual containers, precise dosing mechanisms, and quality control measures. The specialized materials and technologies required, such as barrier films and tamper-evident seals, contribute to increased expenses. These higher costs can impact overall profitability and pricing, making unit dose packaging less attractive compared to bulk alternatives. Consequently, the elevated production costs can limit market adoption, especially in cost-sensitive regions, and hinder the growth of the unit dose packaging market.

Covid-19 Impact

The covid-19 pandemic heightened the demand for unit dose packaging due to its role in improving safety and reducing cross-contamination risks. The need for precise medication dosing and infection control drove healthcare facilities to adopt unit dose systems more widely. However, supply chain disruptions and increased costs of raw materials posed challenges. The pandemic also accelerated trends towards automation and digital solutions in packaging to manage high volumes and ensure efficient distribution of medications.

The pre-filled syringes segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

The pre-filled syringes segment is estimated to be the largest during the forecast period. Pre-filled syringes in unit dose packaging offer a convenient and precise solution for medication administration. Each syringe is pre-measured with a single dose of medication, reducing the risk of dosing errors and contamination. This packaging method improves efficiency in healthcare settings by streamlining the administration process and enhancing patient safety. It is particularly valuable for biologics, vaccines, and chronic condition treatments, ensuring accurate dosing and ease of use for both healthcare providers and patients.

The biologics segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

The biologics segment is anticipated to witness the highest CAGR growth during the forecast period. Unit dose packaging in biologics ensures precise and safe administration of complex medications. This packaging method provides single-use containers for each dose, minimizing contamination risks and dosing errors. It is particularly beneficial for biologics, which often require stringent handling and accurate dosing due to their sensitive nature. By streamlining preparation and reducing the risk of cross-contamination, unit dose packaging enhances patient safety and adherence while improving efficiency in healthcare settings.

Region with largest share:

In the Asia-Pacific region, the unit dose packaging market is expanding rapidly and is anticipated to register the largest market share due to increasing healthcare infrastructure, a rising focus on patient safety, and growing chronic disease prevalence. The region's diverse pharmaceutical industry drives demand for efficient and precise medication delivery systems. Innovations in packaging technology and regulatory advancements further support market growth. Additionally, the expansion of hospitals, clinics, and long-term care facilities boosts the need for unit dose solutions, enhancing medication management and patient care across various countries in the region.

Region with highest CAGR:

In North America, the unit dose packaging market is experiencing significant growth driven by a strong focus on patient safety, regulatory requirements, and technological advancements. The region's robust healthcare infrastructure and high prevalence of chronic diseases increase demand for precise and efficient medication management systems. Innovations in packaging technology and a growing emphasis on reducing medication errors support market expansion. Additionally, the rise in healthcare facilities and the push for improved inventory management and medication adherence further contribute to the market's growth in North America.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players profiled in the Unit Dose Packaging Market include BD (Becton, Dickinson and Company), Gerresheimer AG, West Pharmaceutical Services Inc., Nemera, MediSafe, Omnicare Inc., AccuStar Packaging, Schaefer Technologies Inc., Pharmapack, Paragon Healthcare, Lonza, Trellis Pharma, Systech International, Vetter Pharma-Fertigung GmbH & Co. KG, Uhlmann Pac-Systeme GmbH & Co. KG and Jones Healthcare.

Key Developments:

In September 2022, BD (Becton, Dickinson and Company) introduced a next-generation glass prefillable syringe (PFS) that sets a new standard in performance for vaccine PFS with new and tightened specifications for processability, cosmetics, contamination and integrity. The new BD EffivaxTM Glass Prefillable Syringe has been designed in collaboration with leading pharmaceutical companies to meet the complex and evolving needs of vaccine manufacturing.

In August 2022, Jones Healthcare Launched Sustainable FlexRx(TM) one blister pack, designed for automation. The new unit-dose adherence package is ideal for retail, specialty and long-term care pharmacies using centralized fulfillment or automation in-house. This bioplastic is manufactured from renewable resources, is free of any chemicals of concern, and is also readily recyclable across most households in North America.

Products Covered:

  • Blister Packs
  • Vials
  • Ampoules
  • Pre-filled Syringes
  • Pouches
  • Bottles
  • Other Products

Materials Covered:

  • Plastic
  • Paperboard
  • Glass
  • Metal
  • Other Materials

Distribution Channels Covered:

  • Direct Sales
  • Online Sales
  • Third-Party Distributors
  • Other Distribution Channels

Applications Covered:

  • Biologics
  • Over-the-Counter (OTC) Medications
  • Nutraceuticals
  • Other Applications

End Users Covered:

  • Hospitals
  • Long-Term Care Facilities
  • Home Care Settings
  • Other End Users

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2022, 2023, 2024, 2026, and 2030
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 Product Analysis
  • 3.7 Application Analysis
  • 3.8 End User Analysis
  • 3.9 Emerging Markets
  • 3.10 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market, By Product

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Blister Packs
  • 5.3 Vials
  • 5.4 Ampoules
  • 5.5 Pre-filled Syringes
  • 5.6 Pouches
  • 5.7 Bottles
  • 5.8 Other Products

6 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market, By Material

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Plastic
  • 6.3 Paperboard
  • 6.4 Glass
  • 6.5 Metal
  • 6.6 Other Materials

7 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market, By Distribution Channel

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Direct Sales
  • 7.3 Online Sales
  • 7.4 Third-Party Distributors
  • 7.5 Other Distribution Channels

8 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market, By Application

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Biologics
  • 8.3 Over-the-Counter (OTC) Medications
  • 8.4 Nutraceuticals
  • 8.5 Other Applications

9 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market, By End User

  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 Hospitals
  • 9.3 Long-Term Care Facilities
  • 9.4 Home Care Settings
  • 9.5 Other End Users

10 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market, By Geography

  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 North America
    • 10.2.1 US
    • 10.2.2 Canada
    • 10.2.3 Mexico
  • 10.3 Europe
    • 10.3.1 Germany
    • 10.3.2 UK
    • 10.3.3 Italy
    • 10.3.4 France
    • 10.3.5 Spain
    • 10.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 10.4 Asia Pacific
    • 10.4.1 Japan
    • 10.4.2 China
    • 10.4.3 India
    • 10.4.4 Australia
    • 10.4.5 New Zealand
    • 10.4.6 South Korea
    • 10.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 10.5 South America
    • 10.5.1 Argentina
    • 10.5.2 Brazil
    • 10.5.3 Chile
    • 10.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 10.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 10.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 10.6.2 UAE
    • 10.6.3 Qatar
    • 10.6.4 South Africa
    • 10.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

11 Key Developments

  • 11.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 11.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 11.3 New Product Launch
  • 11.4 Expansions
  • 11.5 Other Key Strategies

12 Company Profiling

  • 12.1 BD (Becton, Dickinson and Company)
  • 12.2 Gerresheimer AG
  • 12.3 West Pharmaceutical Services Inc.
  • 12.4 Nemera
  • 12.5 MediSafe
  • 12.6 Omnicare Inc.
  • 12.7 AccuStar Packaging
  • 12.8 Schaefer Technologies Inc.
  • 12.9 Pharmapack
  • 12.10 Paragon Healthcare
  • 12.11 Lonza
  • 12.12 Trellis Pharma
  • 12.13 Systech International
  • 12.14 Vetter Pharma-Fertigung GmbH & Co. KG
  • 12.15 Uhlmann Pac-Systeme GmbH & Co. KG
  • 12.16 Jones Healthcare

List of Tables

  • Table 1 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Region (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 2 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Product (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 3 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Blister Packs (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 4 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Vials (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 5 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Ampoules (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 6 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Pre-filled Syringes (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 7 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Pouches (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 8 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Bottles (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 9 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Other Products (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 10 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Material (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 11 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Plastic (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 12 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Paperboard (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 13 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Glass (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 14 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Metal (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 15 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Other Materials (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 16 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Distribution Channel (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 17 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Direct Sales (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 18 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Online Sales (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 19 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Third-Party Distributors (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 20 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Other Distribution Channels (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 21 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Application (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 22 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Biologics (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 23 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Over-the-Counter (OTC) Medications (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 24 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Nutraceuticals (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 25 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Other Applications (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 26 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By End User (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 27 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Hospitals (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 28 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Long-Term Care Facilities (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 29 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Home Care Settings (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 30 Global Unit Dose Packaging Market Outlook, By Other End Users (2022-2030) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.