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市场调查报告书
商品编码
1813371

2032 年杜松子酒市场预测：按产品类型、生产方式、口味、价格分布、分销管道和地区进行的全球分析

Gin Market Forecasts to 2032 - Global Analysis By Product Type, Production Method, Flavor, Price Point, Distribution Channel and By Geography
出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 200+ Pages | 商品交期: 2-3个工作天内

价格

根据 Stratistics MRC 的数据，全球琴酒市场规模预计在 2025 年达到 176 亿美元，到 2032 年将达到 254 亿美元，预测期内的复合年增长率为 5.4%。

金酒是一种清澈的烈酒，其独特的风味源自于杜松子。作为一种中性谷物烈酒，它与多种植物成分（包括但不限于香菜籽、当归根、柑橘皮和其他香辛料）重新蒸馏，以创造出其独特的风味。虽然金酒的法律定义和生产方法因地区而异，但其核心特征仍然是其浓郁的杜松子风味。金酒起源于荷兰，并在英国逐渐流行，如今已发展成为一种用途广泛、用途广泛的烈酒，是许多经典和现代鸡尾酒的基酒。

罐装琴通宁、鸡尾酒和碳酸饮料的爆炸性增长

消费者越来越被预混合料鸡尾酒和碳酸软性饮料的便利性、便携性和始终如一的口味所吸引。这种趋势在年轻人和都市区人群中尤其明显，他们追求无需调酒技巧的高端体验。包装和风味注入的创新进一步提升了产品的吸引力，各大品牌纷纷尝试添加植物成分和异国风味。零售通路的扩张和电商渗透也推动了即饮饮料类别的发展，使这些产品比以往任何时候都更容易获得。

植物供应链不稳定

气候条件波动、地缘政治紧张局势和运输瓶颈阻碍了这些原料的供应。此外，对稳定品质和可追溯性的需求也增加了采购流程的复杂性。当植物原料供应受到影响时，种植者将面临保持风味一致性的挑战，这可能会影响品牌声誉。特种原料成本的上涨和海关延误进一步影响了生产计划和利润。

加强直接面向消费者（DTC）管道

DTC平台让品牌能够讲述独特的故事，提供个人化的产品组合，并收集宝贵的客户洞察。订阅模式和限量版发行日益流行，提升了品牌忠诚度和重复购买率。增强的物流和履约能力可以加快交付速度并改善客户服务。此外，社群媒体和网红行销正在提升品牌知名度，并帮助小众和精酿金酒生产商在不完全依赖传统零售商的情况下触及目标消费者。

加强政府监管和课税

为抑製酒精消费，各地区政府正在提高消费税、标籤检视要求并限制广告投放。这些措施可能会显着影响盈利，尤其对中小型酿酒厂而言。监管的不确定性也阻碍了长期规划和创新投资。一些市场也限制了酒精的线上销售和跨境运输，限制了新兴DTC模式的潜在成长。

COVID-19的影响：

疫情重塑了金酒市场的消费行为与供应链动态。儘管由于封锁和保持社交距离，店内消费有所下降，但随着消费者寻求居家舒适，路边和线上销售却飙升。精酿酒厂转向数位化互动和虚拟品鑑，创造了新的体验式模式。然而，原料采购中断和劳动力短缺影响了生产计划，尤其是对于手工品牌而言。这场危机也加速了人们对健康配方的兴趣，促使生产者探索低酒精度和植物性配方。

伦敦干杜松子酒市场预计将在预测期内达到最大

伦敦干金酒市场预计将在预测期内占据最大市场份额，这得益于其经典的风味、清晰的监管体系和广泛的消费者认可。其生产过程禁止在蒸馏后添加人工香料，确保了始终如一的正宗口味，吸引了纯粹主义者和调酒师的青睐。该市场受益于其强大的品牌传承以及在成熟市场和新兴市场中建立的分销网络。

在预测期内，塔式蒸馏琴酒的复合年增长率将最高。

受技术进步和消费者偏好变化的推动，预计塔式蒸馏金酒市场将在预测期内呈现最高成长率。这种方法可以更好地控制纯度和风味提取，使生产商能够创造出细緻入微、富有创新性的酒品。该领域正受到那些尝试使用稀有植物和永续生产技术的精酿酿酒商的关注。其可扩展性和高效性使其对寻求满足日益增长的需求的大型企业具有吸引力。

占比最高的地区：

预计亚太地区将在预测期内占据最大的市场份额，这得益于可支配收入的成长、都市化以及人们对顶级烈酒日益增长的喜爱。日本、印度和澳洲等国家正经历手工酿酒厂的激增，并尝试使用本地种植的植物原料。向西式鸡尾酒的文化转变以及高端酒吧的盛行正在推动消费。该地区的公司正在利用本土原料，创造出符合当地口味的独特产品。

复合年增长率最高的地区：

在预测期内，北美预计将实现最高的复合年增长率，这得益于精酿烈酒机芯和消费者对手工产品日益增长的兴趣。该地区拥有充满活力的小批量酿酒厂生态系统，这些酿酒厂重视透明度、永续性和创新性。调味和浸泡金酒的需求正在上升，尤其是在追求创新饮酒体验的千禧世代和Z世代消费者中。对精酿酒精的监管支持以及品酒室和酿酒厂参观活动的扩展，正在推动品牌参与度的提升。

免费客製化服务：

此报告的订阅者可以使用以下免费自订选项之一：

  • 公司简介
    • 对最多三家其他市场公司进行全面分析
    • 主要企业的SWOT分析（最多3家公司）
  • 区域细分
    • 根据客户兴趣对主要国家进行的市场估计、预测和复合年增长率（註：基于可行性检查）
  • 竞争基准化分析
    • 根据产品系列、地理分布和策略联盟对主要企业基准化分析

目录

第一章执行摘要

第二章 前言

  • 概述
  • 相关利益者
  • 调查范围
  • 调查方法
    • 资料探勘
    • 数据分析
    • 数据检验
    • 研究途径
  • 研究材料
    • 主要研究资料
    • 次级研究资讯来源
    • 先决条件

第三章市场走势分析

  • 驱动程式
  • 抑制因素
  • 机会
  • 威胁
  • 产品分析
  • 新兴市场
  • COVID-19的影响

第四章 波特五力分析

  • 供应商的议价能力
  • 买方的议价能力
  • 替代品的威胁
  • 新进入者的威胁
  • 竞争对手之间的竞争

5. 全球杜松子酒市场（依产品类型）

  • 伦敦干金酒
  • 老汤姆杜松子酒
  • 普利茅斯金酒
  • 当代/新西方琴酒
  • 调味琴酒
  • 日内瓦
  • 无酒精琴酒
  • 海军劲量金酒
  • 其他产品类型

6. 全球杜松子酒市场（依生产方式）

  • 壶式蒸馏琴酒
  • 柱状蒸馏杜松子酒
  • 复合金酒

7. 全球杜松子酒市场（依口味）

  • 柑橘
  • 花的
  • 辛辣/草药
  • 果味
  • 经典/中性
  • 其他口味

第八章 全球杜松子酒市场（按价格分布范围）

  • 标准
  • 优质的
  • 超高级
  • 超高阶

9. 全球杜松子酒市场（按分销管道）

  • On-Trade
  • Off-Trade
    • 专卖店/酒类商店
    • 大卖场和超级市场
    • 网上零售/电子商务

第 10 章全球杜松子酒市场（按地区）

  • 北美洲
    • 美国
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 欧洲
    • 德国
    • 英国
    • 义大利
    • 法国
    • 西班牙
    • 其他欧洲国家
  • 亚太地区
    • 日本
    • 中国
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 纽西兰
    • 韩国
    • 其他亚太地区
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 其他南美
  • 中东和非洲
    • 沙乌地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公国
    • 卡达
    • 南非
    • 其他中东和非洲地区

第十一章 重大进展

  • 协议、伙伴关係、合作和合资企业
  • 收购与合併
  • 新产品发布
  • 业务扩展
  • 其他关键策略

第十二章 公司概况

  • William Grant & Sons Ltd.
  • The Sustainable Spirit Company
  • The East India Company Ltd
  • Suntory Holdings Limited
  • St. George Spirits
  • San Miguel Corporation
  • Radico Khaitan Ltd
  • Pernod Ricard
  • Nao Spirits & Beverages Pvt. Ltd.
  • Lucas Bols NV
  • Hayman's of London
  • Four Pillars Distillery
  • Forest Spirits by La Hanoudiere
  • Edinburgh Gin
  • Diageo plc
  • Davide Campari-Milano NV
  • Bayab African Gin
  • Bacardi Limited
Product Code: SMRC30818

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Gin Market is accounted for $17.6 billion in 2025 and is expected to reach $25.4 billion by 2032 growing at a CAGR of 5.4% during the forecast period. Gin is a clear, distilled alcoholic spirit known for its predominant flavor derived from juniper berries. As a neutral grain spirit, it is redistilled with a variety of botanicals, including but not limited to coriander seed, angelica root, citrus peel, and other spices, to create its distinctive profile. The legal definition and production methods of gin vary by region, but its core identity remains its juniper-forward taste. Originating in the Netherlands and gaining popularity in England, gin has evolved into a versatile and widely used spirit, serving as the base for a multitude of classic and modern cocktails.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Explosive growth of pre-mixed canned gin & tonics, cocktails, and seltzers

Consumers are increasingly drawn to the convenience, portability, and consistent flavor profiles offered by pre-mixed cocktails and seltzers. This trend is particularly strong among younger demographics and urban populations seeking premium experiences without the need for bartending skills. Innovations in packaging and flavor infusion are further enhancing product appeal, with brands experimenting with botanicals and exotic ingredients. The RTD segment is also benefiting from expanded retail distribution and e-commerce penetration, making these products more accessible than ever.

Restraint:

Supply chain volatility for botanicals

Fluctuations in climate conditions, geopolitical tensions, and transportation bottlenecks have disrupted the steady supply of these ingredients. Additionally, the need for consistent quality and traceability adds complexity to procurement processes. Producers face challenges in maintaining flavor consistency when botanical availability is compromised, which can affect brand reputation. Rising costs of specialty ingredients and delays in customs clearance are further straining production timelines and margins.

Opportunity:

Strengthening direct-to-consumer (DTC) sales channels

DTC platforms allow brands to showcase their unique stories, offer personalized product bundles, and gather valuable customer insights. Subscription models and limited-edition releases are gaining traction, fostering brand loyalty and repeat purchases. Enhanced logistics and fulfillment capabilities are enabling faster delivery and better customer service. Moreover, social media and influencer marketing are amplifying brand visibility, helping niche and craft gin producers reach targeted audiences without relying solely on traditional retail.

Threat:

Increased government regulations and taxes

Governments across various regions are implementing higher excise duties, labeling requirements, and advertising restrictions aimed at curbing alcohol consumption. These measures can significantly impact profitability, especially for small and mid-sized distillers. Regulatory unpredictability also hampers long-term planning and investment in innovation. In some markets, restrictions on online alcohol sales and cross-border shipping are limiting the growth potential of emerging DTC models.

Covid-19 Impact:

The pandemic reshaped consumer behavior and supply chain dynamics within the gin market. While on-premise consumption declined due to lockdowns and social distancing, off-premise and online sales surged as consumers sought at-home indulgence. Craft distilleries pivoted toward digital engagement and virtual tastings, creating new experiential formats. However, disruptions in raw material sourcing and labor shortages affected production schedules, especially for artisanal brands. The crisis also accelerated interest in health-conscious formulations, prompting some producers to explore low-alcohol or botanical-forward variants.

The london dry gin segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

The london dry gin segment is expected to account for the largest market share during the forecast period due to its classic flavor profile, regulatory clarity, and widespread consumer recognition. Its production method, which prohibits artificial flavoring post-distillation, ensures a consistent and authentic taste that appeals to purists and mixologists alike. The segment benefits from strong brand heritage and established distribution networks across both mature and emerging markets.

The column distilled gin segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

Over the forecast period, the column distilled gin segment is predicted to witness the highest growth rate driven by technological advancements and evolving consumer preferences. This method allows for greater control over purity and flavor extraction, enabling producers to craft nuanced and innovative expressions. The segment is attracting attention from craft distillers experimenting with exotic botanicals and sustainable production techniques. Its scalability and efficiency make it appealing for large-scale operations looking to meet rising demand.

Region with largest share:

During the forecast period, the Asia Pacific region is expected to hold the largest market share fueled by rising disposable incomes, urbanization, and a growing appreciation for premium spirits. Countries like Japan, India, and Australia are witnessing a surge in craft distilleries and local botanical experimentation. Cultural shifts toward Western-style cocktails and the proliferation of upscale bars are driving consumption. Regional players are leveraging indigenous ingredients to create distinctive offerings that resonate with local palates.

Region with highest CAGR:

Over the forecast period, the North America region is anticipated to exhibit the highest CAGR propelled by the craft spirits movement and increasing consumer interest in artisanal products. The region is home to a vibrant ecosystem of small-batch distilleries that emphasize transparency, sustainability, and innovation. Demand for flavored and infused gins is rising, particularly among millennials and Gen Z consumers seeking novel drinking experiences. Regulatory support for craft alcohol and the expansion of tasting rooms and distillery tours are enhancing brand engagement.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players in Gin Market include William Grant & Sons Ltd., The Sustainable Spirit Company, The East India Company Ltd, Suntory Holdings Limited, St. George Spirits, San Miguel Corporation, Radico Khaitan Ltd, Pernod Ricard, Nao Spirits & Beverages Pvt. Ltd., Lucas Bols N.V., Hayman's of London, Four Pillars Distillery, Forest Spirits by La Hanoudiere, Edinburgh Gin, Diageo plc, Davide Campari-Milano N.V., Bayab African Gin, and Bacardi Limited.

Key Developments:

In June 2025, Nao Spirits & Beverages Pvt. Ltd. announced it acquired a majority controlling stake in Nao Spirits (makers of Greater Than and Hapusa). The move makes Nao part of Diageo's India premium strategy, integrating well-performing craft gin brands into a larger distribution footprint.

In June 2025, Edinburgh Gin announced the opening of a new state-of-the-art distillery and launched a Rooftop Garden Gin distillery-exclusive. Edinburgh Gin also ran a new campaign in April 2025 to support brand activity around the distillery and new releases.

In May 2025, Four Pillars unveiled novel limited editions in early 2025 and made its mainland China debut / signed travel-retail distribution partnerships. The brand's 2025 activity emphasises creative limited releases and stepping up international distribution in APAC / travel retail.

Product Types Covered:

  • London Dry Gin
  • Old Tom Gin
  • Plymouth Gin
  • Contemporary/New Western Gin
  • Flavored & Infused Gin
  • Genever
  • Non-Alcoholic Gin
  • Navy Strength Gin
  • Other Product Types

Production Methods Covered:

  • Pot Distilled Gin
  • Column Distilled Gin
  • Compound Gin

Flavours Covered:

  • Citrus
  • Floral
  • Spicy/Herbal
  • Fruity
  • Classic/Neutral
  • Other Flavours

Price Points Covered:

  • Standard
  • Premium
  • Super-Premium
  • Ultra-Premium

Distribution Channels Covered:

  • On-Trade
  • Off-Trade

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2024, 2025, 2026, 2028, and 2032
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 Product Analysis
  • 3.7 Emerging Markets
  • 3.8 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Gin Market, By Product Type

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 London Dry Gin
  • 5.3 Old Tom Gin
  • 5.4 Plymouth Gin
  • 5.5 Contemporary/New Western Gin
  • 5.6 Flavored & Infused Gin
  • 5.7 Genever
  • 5.8 Non-Alcoholic Gin
  • 5.9 Navy Strength Gin
  • 5.10 Other Product Types

6 Global Gin Market, By Production Method

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Pot Distilled Gin
  • 6.3 Column Distilled Gin
  • 6.4 Compound Gin

7 Global Gin Market, By Flavor

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Citrus
  • 7.3 Floral
  • 7.4 Spicy/Herbal
  • 7.5 Fruity
  • 7.6 Classic/Neutral
  • 7.7 Other Flavours

8 Global Gin Market, By Price Point

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Standard
  • 8.3 Premium
  • 8.4 Super-Premium
  • 8.5 Ultra-Premium

9 Global Gin Market, By Distribution Channel

  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 On-Trade
  • 9.3 Off-Trade
    • 9.3.1 Specialty/Liquor Stores
    • 9.3.2 Hypermarkets & Supermarkets
    • 9.3.3 Online Retail/E-commerce

10 Global Gin Market, By Geography

  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 North America
    • 10.2.1 US
    • 10.2.2 Canada
    • 10.2.3 Mexico
  • 10.3 Europe
    • 10.3.1 Germany
    • 10.3.2 UK
    • 10.3.3 Italy
    • 10.3.4 France
    • 10.3.5 Spain
    • 10.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 10.4 Asia Pacific
    • 10.4.1 Japan
    • 10.4.2 China
    • 10.4.3 India
    • 10.4.4 Australia
    • 10.4.5 New Zealand
    • 10.4.6 South Korea
    • 10.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 10.5 South America
    • 10.5.1 Argentina
    • 10.5.2 Brazil
    • 10.5.3 Chile
    • 10.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 10.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 10.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 10.6.2 UAE
    • 10.6.3 Qatar
    • 10.6.4 South Africa
    • 10.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

11 Key Developments

  • 11.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 11.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 11.3 New Product Launch
  • 11.4 Expansions
  • 11.5 Other Key Strategies

12 Company Profiling

  • 12.1 William Grant & Sons Ltd.
  • 12.2 The Sustainable Spirit Company
  • 12.3 The East India Company Ltd
  • 12.4 Suntory Holdings Limited
  • 12.5 St. George Spirits
  • 12.6 San Miguel Corporation
  • 12.7 Radico Khaitan Ltd
  • 12.8 Pernod Ricard
  • 12.9 Nao Spirits & Beverages Pvt. Ltd.
  • 12.10 Lucas Bols N.V.
  • 12.11 Hayman's of London
  • 12.12 Four Pillars Distillery
  • 12.13 Forest Spirits by La Hanoudiere
  • 12.14 Edinburgh Gin
  • 12.15 Diageo plc
  • 12.16 Davide Campari-Milano N.V.
  • 12.17 Bayab African Gin
  • 12.18 Bacardi Limited

List of Tables

  • Table 1 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Region (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 2 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Product Type (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 3 Global Gin Market Outlook, By London Dry Gin (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 4 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Old Tom Gin (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 5 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Plymouth Gin (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 6 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Contemporary/New Western Gin (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 7 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Flavored & Infused Gin (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 8 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Genever (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 9 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Non-Alcoholic Gin (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 10 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Navy Strength Gin (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 11 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Other Product Types (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 12 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Production Method (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 13 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Pot Distilled Gin (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 14 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Column Distilled Gin (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 15 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Compound Gin (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 16 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Flavor (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 17 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Citrus (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 18 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Floral (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 19 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Spicy/Herbal (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 20 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Fruity (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 21 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Classic/Neutral (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 22 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Other Flavours (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 23 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Price Point (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 24 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Standard (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 25 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Premium (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 26 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Super-Premium (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 27 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Ultra-Premium (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 28 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Distribution Channel (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 29 Global Gin Market Outlook, By On-Trade (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 30 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Off-Trade (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 31 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Specialty/Liquor Stores (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 32 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Hypermarkets & Supermarkets (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 33 Global Gin Market Outlook, By Online Retail/E-commerce (2024-2032) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.