封面
市场调查报告书
商品编码
1818050

全球杀菌袋市场:预测(至 2032 年)—按产品类型、封口类型、材料、应用、最终用户和地区进行分析

Retort Pouches Market Forecasts to 2032 - Global Analysis By Product Type (Stand-Up Pouches, Flat Pouches, Zipper Pouches, Spouted Pouches and Other Product Types), Closure Type, Material, Application, End User and By Geography

出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 200+ Pages | 商品交期: 2-3个工作天内

价格

根据 Stratistics MRC 的数据,全球杀菌袋市场预计在 2025 年达到 58.5 亿美元,到 2032 年将达到 81.3 亿美元,预测期内的复合年增长率为 4.8%。

杀菌袋是由塑胶和金属箔製成的多层柔性包装结构,旨在承受高温灭菌过程。它们主要用于储存易储存的食品,例如家常小菜、汤和酱汁,是传统罐头食品的有效替代品。这些包装袋可在高达 121°C 的温度下进行无菌处理,确保微生物安全,并延长产品保质期,无需冷藏。其轻巧耐用的设计提高了运输效率和消费者便利性,同时保持了营养和感官品质。

根据发表在《JAMA》上的一项研究,美国尼古丁袋的销量预计将激增 641%,从 2019 年的 1.2606 亿袋增加到 2022 年的 8.0814 亿袋。

方便即食食品的需求不断成长

杀菌袋无需冷藏即可延长保质期,是寻求快速用餐解决方案的都市区消费者的理想选择。其轻巧灵活的结构降低了运输成本,并提高了便携性。食品灭菌和蒸馏过程的创新进一步提高了产品安全性和风味保留率。随着餐饮服务和零售业的扩张,越来越多的製造商开始采用蒸馏包装来满足不断变化的消费者偏好。

回收问题与消费者意识

消费者的环保意识日益增强,对不可回收包装的负面看法可能会阻碍市场接受。监管压力和永续性要求正促使生产商探索替代材料,但成本效益的权衡仍然是一个问题。在环境政策严格的地区,这些挑战可能会减缓其采用速度。塑胶和铝层的组合对阻隔保护至关重要,但这也使得分离和再加工变得困难。

拓展新的产品类型

杀菌袋的应用范围正日益从传统食品扩展到宠物食品、婴儿营养品,甚至药品。其能够耐受高温灭菌,同时保持产品完整性,非常适合敏感配方。各大品牌正利用这种包装形式推出高级产品且定量控制的产品,以吸引註重健康和便利的消费者。这种多元化发展为包装公司开闢了新的收益来源。

健康和安全问题

虽然杀菌袋的设计初衷是确保安全,但人们仍然担心化学物质会从包装材料迁移到食品中,尤其是在高温下。监管机构正在加强食品接触材料的标准,促使製造商投资进行合规性测试和认证。密封完整性或灭菌不合格会导致污染风险,并削弱消费者信心。此外,关于蒸馏技术安全性的错误讯息和缺乏安全意识,可能会阻碍其在某些市场的推广。

COVID-19的影响:

疫情扰乱了供应链,改变了消费者行为,对杀菌袋市场产生了复杂的影响。最初,封锁和劳动力短缺影响了生产和分销,造成了延误和库存缺口。然而,随着消费者囤积不易腐坏的食品,这场危机也加速了耐存包装食品的需求。杀菌袋因其卫生、防篡改和保质期长的特点而广受欢迎。

立式袋市场预计在预测期内将占据最大份额

立式袋凭藉其卓越的功能性和美观性,预计在预测期内将占据最大的市场份额。立式袋附有角撑板,可直立展示,提高产品在零售货架上的可见度,并增强品牌差异化。这些包装袋具有出色的阻隔氧气、水分和光线的功能,可长时间维持产品品质。其可重复密封的特性和符合人体工学的设计,迎合了便利的消费趋势。

预计在预测期内,撕裂切口部分将以最高的复合年增长率成长。

由于其用户友好的设计以及在单份包装中的日益普及,预计在预测期内,撕口包装将实现最高成长率。撕口包装无需剪刀或其他工具即可轻鬆开启,方便老年消费者和儿童使用。这项特性在紧急口粮、套件和野外餐食中尤其重要。包装袋工程技术的进步提高了撕口包装的精确度和耐用性,确保了其一致的性能。

比最大的地区

预计北美将在预测期内占据最大市场份额,这得益于其强大的食品加工基础设施和消费者对包装食品的高接受度。该地区对产品安全性、便利性和永续性的重视,推动了包装袋形式和材料的创新。主要企业正在投资智慧包装技术,例如QR码可追溯性和微波炉适用包装袋。 FDA合美国食品药物管理局确保了高标准并增强了消费者信任。

复合年增长率最高的地区:

由于都市化进程加快、中阶不断壮大以及可支配所得不断增加,预计亚太地区在预测期内的复合年增长率最高。中国、印度和印尼等国家对包装食品的需求正在激增,尤其是在年轻人群体中。政府为促进食品安全和包装现代化的措施正在鼓励当地製造商采用蒸馏技术。该地区也受惠于成本效益高的生产方式和蓬勃发展的包装食品出口市场。

免费客製化服务

此报告的订阅者可以选择以下免费自订选项之一:

  • 公司简介
    • 对最多三家其他公司进行全面分析
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  • 区域分类
    • 根据客户兴趣对主要国家进行的市场估计、预测和复合年增长率(註:基于可行性检查)
  • 竞争基准化分析
    • 根据产品系列、地理分布和策略联盟对主要企业基准化分析

目录

第一章执行摘要

第 2 章 简介

  • 概述
  • 相关利益者
  • 分析范围
  • 分析方法
    • 资料探勘
    • 数据分析
    • 数据检验
    • 分析方法
  • 分析材料
    • 主要研究资料
    • 二手研究资讯来源
    • 先决条件

第三章市场走势分析

  • 驱动程式
  • 抑制因素
  • 市场机会
  • 威胁
  • 产品分析
  • 应用分析
  • 最终用户分析
  • 新兴市场
  • COVID-19的感染疾病

第四章 波特五力分析

  • 供应商的议价能力
  • 买方议价能力
  • 替代产品的威胁
  • 新参与企业的威胁
  • 企业之间的竞争

第五章全球杀菌袋市场(依产品类型)

  • 立式袋
  • 扁平袋
  • 拉炼袋
  • 带嘴袋
  • 其他产品类型

6. 全球杀菌袋市场(依封口类型)

  • 天野之介
  • 拉炼
  • 带帽
  • 喷口
  • 无上限

第七章 全球杀菌袋市场(依材料)

  • 聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯(PET)
  • 聚乙烯(PE)
  • 聚丙烯(PP)
  • 聚酰胺(尼龙)
  • 铝箔
  • 其他成分

第八章 全球杀菌袋市场(按应用)

  • 婴儿食品
  • 即食食品
  • 宠物食品
  • 汤和酱汁
  • 鱼贝类和肉品
  • 其他用途

9. 全球杀菌袋市场(依最终用户)

  • 食品/饮料
  • 国防/军事
  • 医疗保健
  • 零售
  • 饭店业
  • 其他最终用户

第 10 章全球杀菌袋市场(按地区)

  • 北美洲
    • 美国
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 欧洲
    • 德国
    • 英国
    • 义大利
    • 法国
    • 西班牙
    • 其他欧洲国家
  • 亚太地区
    • 日本
    • 中国
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 纽西兰
    • 韩国
    • 其他亚太地区
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 南美洲其他地区
  • 中东和非洲
    • 沙乌地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公国
    • 卡达
    • 南非
    • 其他中东和非洲地区

第十一章 重大进展

  • 合约、商业伙伴关係和合资企业
  • 企业合併(M&A)
  • 新产品发布
  • 业务扩展
  • 其他关键策略

第十二章 公司概况

  • Amcor plc
  • Mondi Group
  • Sonoco Products Company
  • Berry Global Group, Inc.
  • ProAmpac Holdings Inc.
  • Huhtamaki Oyj
  • Sealed Air Corporation
  • Bemis Company, Inc.
  • Winpak Ltd.
  • Coveris Holdings SA
  • Constantia Flexibles
  • Clondalkin Group
  • Tetra Pak International SA
  • Fres-co System USA, Inc.
  • Printpack Inc.
  • Uflex Ltd.
  • Gualapack Group
  • Glenroy, Inc.
  • Paharpur 3P
Product Code: SMRC31013

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Retort Pouches Market is accounted for $5.85 billion in 2025 and is expected to reach $8.13 billion by 2032 growing at a CAGR of 4.8% during the forecast period. Retort pouches are multilayered flexible packaging structures composed of plastic and metal foils, engineered to withstand high-temperature sterilization processes. Used predominantly for shelf-stable foods such as ready meals, soups, and sauces, they serve as an efficient alternative to traditional canning. These pouches enable aseptic processing at temperatures up to 121°C, ensuring microbial safety and extended product shelf life without refrigeration. Their lightweight, durable design enhances transport efficiency and consumer convenience while preserving nutritional and sensory qualities.

According to a study published in JAMA, sales of nicotine pouches in the United States surged by 641%, rising from 126.06 million units in 2019 to 808.14 million units in 2022.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Growing demand for convenient and ready-to-eat (RTE) foods

Retort Pouches offer extended shelf life without refrigeration, making them ideal for urban consumers seeking quick meal solutions. Their lightweight, flexible structure also reduces transportation costs and enhances portability. Innovations in food sterilization and retort processing have further improved product safety and taste retention. As foodservice and retail sectors expand, manufacturers are increasingly adopting retort packaging to meet evolving consumer preferences.

Restraint:

Recycling challenges & consumer perception

Consumers are becoming more environmentally conscious, and negative perceptions around non-recyclable packaging can hinder market acceptance. Regulatory pressures and sustainability mandates are pushing producers to explore alternative materials, but cost and performance trade-offs remain a concern. These challenges may slow adoption in regions with strict environmental policies. The combination of plastic and aluminum layers, essential for barrier protection, makes separation and reprocessing difficult.

Opportunity:

Expansion into new product categories

Retort pouches are increasingly being used beyond traditional food applications, entering segments such as pet food, baby nutrition, and even pharmaceutical products. Their ability to withstand high-temperature sterilization while preserving product integrity makes them suitable for sensitive formulations. Brands are leveraging the format to launch premium and portion-controlled offerings, appealing to health-conscious and convenience-driven consumers. This diversification is opening new revenue streams for packaging companies.

Threat:

Health and safety concerns

Although retort pouches are engineered for safety, concerns persist regarding chemical migration from packaging materials into food, especially under high heat. Regulatory bodies are tightening standards around food-contact materials, prompting manufacturers to invest in compliance testing and certification. Any lapses in sealing integrity or sterilization can lead to contamination risks, undermining consumer trust. Moreover, misinformation and lack of awareness about the safety of retort technology may deter adoption in certain markets.

Covid-19 Impact:

The pandemic disrupted supply chains and altered consumer behavior, influencing the retort pouch market in complex ways. Initially, lockdowns and labor shortages affected production and distribution, causing delays and inventory gaps. However, the crisis also accelerated demand for shelf-stable packaged foods, as consumers stocked up on non-perishable items. Retort pouches gained traction due to their hygienic, tamper-evident features and long shelf life.

The stand-up pouches segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

The stand-up pouches segment is expected to account for the largest market share during the forecast period due to their superior functionality and aesthetic appeal. Their gusseted base allows upright display, enhancing visibility on retail shelves and improving brand differentiation. These pouches offer excellent barrier protection against oxygen, moisture, and light, preserving product quality over extended periods. Their resealable features and ergonomic design cater to on-the-go consumption trends.

The tear notch segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

Over the forecast period, the tear notch segment is predicted to witness the highest growth rate driven by its user-friendly design and growing adoption in single-serve packaging. Tear notches enable easy opening without the need for scissors or tools, enhancing accessibility for elderly consumers and children. This feature is particularly valuable in emergency rations, travel kits, and outdoor meals. Advances in pouch engineering have improved notch precision and durability, ensuring consistent performance.

Region with largest share:

During the forecast period, the North America region is expected to hold the largest market share propelled by robust food processing infrastructure and high consumer acceptance of packaged meals. The region's emphasis on product safety, convenience, and sustainability has driven innovation in pouch formats and materials. Key players are investing in smart packaging technologies, including QR-coded traceability and microwaveable pouches. Regulatory frameworks such as FDA compliance ensure high standards, fostering trust among consumers.

Region with highest CAGR:

Over the forecast period, the Asia Pacific region is anticipated to exhibit the highest CAGR owing to rising urbanization, expanding middle-class populations, and increasing disposable incomes. Countries like China, India, and Indonesia are witnessing a surge in demand for packaged foods, especially among younger demographics. Government initiatives promoting food safety and packaging modernization are encouraging local manufacturers to adopt retort technology. The region also benefits from cost-effective production and a thriving export market for processed foods.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players in Retort Pouches Market include Amcor plc, Mondi Group, Sonoco Products Company, Berry Global Group, Inc., ProAmpac Holdings Inc., Huhtamaki Oyj, Sealed Air Corporation, Bemis Company, Inc., Winpak Ltd., Coveris Holdings S.A., Constantia Flexibles, Clondalkin Group, Tetra Pak International S.A., Fres-co System USA, Inc., Printpack Inc., Uflex Ltd., Gualapack Group, Glenroy, Inc., and Paharpur 3P.

Key Developments:

In July 2025, UFlex announced trade-show launches (GCPRS/CMPL/Cosmopack NA) and showcased FlexiTubes with US-FDA-approved recycled content and other sustainable tube offerings in mid-2025. The items emphasise UFlex's commercial rollout of PCR-content tube formats and recycling investments.

In April 2025, Mondi successfully started up a new recycled containerboard machine in Duino, increasing circular fibre capacity and local corrugated board supply. The press note highlighted the company's investment in recycling-based board capacity and service improvements for customers.

In January 2025, Amcor and Berry filed joint proxy materials and announced shareholder meeting dates as the proposed combination progressed toward shareholder and regulatory votes. This filing set the timetable for votes and next governance steps in the transaction process.

Product Types Covered:

  • Stand-Up Pouches
  • Flat Pouches
  • Zipper Pouches
  • Spouted Pouches
  • Other Product Types

Closure Types Covered:

  • Tear Notch
  • Zipper
  • With Cap
  • Spout
  • Without Cap

Materials Covered:

  • Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
  • Polyethylene (PE)
  • Polypropylene (PP)
  • Polyamide (Nylon)
  • Aluminum Foil
  • Other Materials

Applications Covered:

  • Baby Food
  • Ready-to-Eat Meals
  • Pet Food
  • Soups & Sauces
  • Seafood & Meat Products
  • Other Applications

End Users Covered:

  • Food & Beverage
  • Defense & Military
  • Healthcare
  • Retail
  • Hospitality
  • Other End Users

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2024, 2025, 2026, 2028, and 2032
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 Product Analysis
  • 3.7 Application Analysis
  • 3.8 End User Analysis
  • 3.9 Emerging Markets
  • 3.10 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Retort Pouches Market, By Product Type

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Stand-Up Pouches
  • 5.3 Flat Pouches
  • 5.4 Zipper Pouches
  • 5.5 Spouted Pouches
  • 5.6 Other Product Types

6 Global Retort Pouches Market, By Closure Type

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Tear Notch
  • 6.3 Zipper
  • 6.4 With Cap
  • 6.5 Spout
  • 6.6 Without Cap

7 Global Retort Pouches Market, By Material

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
  • 7.3 Polyethylene (PE)
  • 7.4 Polypropylene (PP)
  • 7.5 Polyamide (Nylon)
  • 7.6 Aluminum Foil
  • 7.7 Other Materials

8 Global Retort Pouches Market, By Application

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Baby Food
  • 8.3 Ready-to-Eat Meals
  • 8.4 Pet Food
  • 8.5 Soups & Sauces
  • 8.6 Seafood & Meat Products
  • 8.7 Other Applications

9 Global Retort Pouches Market, By End User

  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 Food & Beverage
  • 9.3 Defense & Military
  • 9.4 Healthcare
  • 9.5 Retail
  • 9.6 Hospitality
  • 9.7 Other End Users

10 Global Retort Pouches Market, By Geography

  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 North America
    • 10.2.1 US
    • 10.2.2 Canada
    • 10.2.3 Mexico
  • 10.3 Europe
    • 10.3.1 Germany
    • 10.3.2 UK
    • 10.3.3 Italy
    • 10.3.4 France
    • 10.3.5 Spain
    • 10.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 10.4 Asia Pacific
    • 10.4.1 Japan
    • 10.4.2 China
    • 10.4.3 India
    • 10.4.4 Australia
    • 10.4.5 New Zealand
    • 10.4.6 South Korea
    • 10.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 10.5 South America
    • 10.5.1 Argentina
    • 10.5.2 Brazil
    • 10.5.3 Chile
    • 10.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 10.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 10.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 10.6.2 UAE
    • 10.6.3 Qatar
    • 10.6.4 South Africa
    • 10.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

11 Key Developments

  • 11.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 11.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 11.3 New Product Launch
  • 11.4 Expansions
  • 11.5 Other Key Strategies

12 Company Profiling

  • 12.1 Amcor plc
  • 12.2 Mondi Group
  • 12.3 Sonoco Products Company
  • 12.4 Berry Global Group, Inc.
  • 12.5 ProAmpac Holdings Inc.
  • 12.6 Huhtamaki Oyj
  • 12.7 Sealed Air Corporation
  • 12.8 Bemis Company, Inc.
  • 12.9 Winpak Ltd.
  • 12.10 Coveris Holdings S.A.
  • 12.11 Constantia Flexibles
  • 12.12 Clondalkin Group
  • 12.13 Tetra Pak International S.A.
  • 12.14 Fres-co System USA, Inc.
  • 12.15 Printpack Inc.
  • 12.16 Uflex Ltd.
  • 12.17 Gualapack Group
  • 12.18 Glenroy, Inc.
  • 12.19 Paharpur 3P

List of Tables

  • 1 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Region (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 2 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Product Type (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 3 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Stand-Up Pouches (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 4 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Flat Pouches (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 5 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Zipper Pouches (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 6 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Spouted Pouches (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 7 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Other Product Types (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 8 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Closure Type (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 9 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Tear Notch (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 10 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Zipper (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 11 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By With Cap (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 12 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Spout (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 13 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Without Cap (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 14 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Material (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 15 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 16 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Polyethylene (PE) (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 17 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Polypropylene (PP) (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 18 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Polyamide (Nylon) (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 19 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Aluminum Foil (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 20 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Other Materials (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 21 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Application (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 22 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Baby Food (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 23 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Ready-to-Eat Meals (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 24 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Pet Food (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 25 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Soups & Sauces (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 26 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Seafood & Meat Products (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 27 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Other Applications (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 28 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By End User (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 29 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Food & Beverage (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 30 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Defense & Military (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 31 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Healthcare (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 32 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Retail (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 33 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Hospitality (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • 34 Global Retort Pouches Market Outlook, By Other End Users (2024-2032) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.