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市场调查报告书
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航空运输USM市场－全球产业规模、份额、趋势、机会、预测：按零件类型、飞机类型、地区和竞争对手划分，2021-2031年

Air Transport USM Market - Global Industry Size, Share, Trends, Opportunity, and Forecast, Segmented By Component Type, By Aircraft Type, By Region & Competition, 2021-2031F
出版日期: | 出版商: TechSci Research | 英文 185 Pages | 商品交期: 2-3个工作天内

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简介目录

全球航空运输二手可用零件（USM）市场预计将从 2025 年的 29.3 亿美元成长到 2031 年的 38.4 亿美元，复合年增长率为 4.61%。

该行业专注于供应从退役飞机上回收的经重新认证的飞机系统和部件，为运营商在飞机大修和维护作业期间提供了一种经济可行的替代方案，以取代从飞机製造商处采购的新部件。市场成长的主要驱动力是航空公司迫切需要降低营运成本，以及在飞机生产严重延误期间维护老旧机队的营运需求。因此，航空公司正在延长现有资产的使用寿命，从而导致对次市场零件的需求增加，以确保机队运作并减少高成本的飞机停机时间。

市场概览
预测期 2027-2031
市场规模：2025年 29.3亿美元
市场规模：2031年 38.4亿美元
复合年增长率：2026-2031年 4.61%
成长最快的细分市场 宽体
最大的市场 北美洲

然而，由于飞机退役延迟，高品质库存严重短缺，这极大地阻碍了市场扩张。航空公司为了弥补交付短缺，延长了老旧飞机的使用寿命，导致拆解飞机数量减少，而拆解飞机是美国改装材料（USM）的关键来源。根据国际航空运输协会（IATA）的数据，预计到2024年，未完成的新飞机订单积压量将达到创纪录的17,000架以上。这种结构性瓶颈限制了进入拆解流程的飞机数量，直接限制了满足行业日益增长的需求所需的可用零件的供应。

市场驱动因素

使用二手可用零件 (USM) 来缓解供应链中断和新零件交货週期延长的问题，是目前市场重组最主要的驱动因素。由于製造商 (OEM) 在结构件和发动机方面面临严重的生产瓶颈，航空公司越来越依赖二手零件市场，以避免长时间等待并维持飞机运转率。这种转变意味着筹资策略的调整，优先选择经过重新认证的二手零件，而不是难以找到的新零件，以防止飞机停飞并维持飞机运作。这项变化的影响在主要二手供应商的业绩中显而易见。根据 AAR 公司于 2024 年 7 月发布的“2024 财年业绩报告”，来自商业客户的收入同比增长 23%，这一增长趋势显然与对二手可用材料和零部件供应解决方案的需求增加密切相关。

此外，航空公司对经济高效的维护和大修方案的需求日益增长，而老旧低效率飞机营运带来的财务负担进一步加剧了这一需求，这也是推动航空业发展的关键因素。随着航空公司延长现有机队的服役年限，零件更换和深度维护的频率也随之增加，因此，为了维持微薄的利润，航空公司必须寻找价格合理的替代方案来取代昂贵的新零件。国际航空运输协会（IATA）的数据显示，到2024年，全球商用飞机的平均机龄将达到创纪录的14.8年，这迫使航空公司在严格的预算限制和严苛的安全标准之间寻求平衡。此外，IATA于2024年6月发布的《全球航空运输展望》预测，到2024年，航空业的投资报酬率（ROIC）仅5.7%，低于平均资本成本。因此，对于那些既要维持财务永续性，又要管理长期营运资产所需密集维护的航空公司而言，寻找经济高效的关键使用零件（USM）变得至关重要。

市场挑战

目前，全球航空运输用通用维修材料（USM）市场受到高品质库存严重短缺的限制，而这主要是由于飞机退役延迟造成的。该行业严重依赖源源不断的退役飞机来生产营运商所需的翻新认证零件。然而，由于航空公司被迫让老旧飞机继续服役以维持运力，拆解渠道实际上已经枯竭。这些老旧资产的持续运作切断了重要的原料来源，造成了严重的供应衝击，并阻碍了通用维修材料供应商从业界对低成本维修方案的强劲需求中获利。

因此，供应商无法维持足够的库存水准以促进交易，这明显限制了市场收入成长。这套颈部与飞机製造商面临的生产挑战直接相关，并阻碍了机队现代化计划。根据国际航空运输协会（IATA）的数据，2024年全球飞机交付将降至仅1,254架，远低于业界正常运作所需的水准。交付短缺迫使航空公司无限期推迟退役决定，继续运营飞机，而不是进入零件回收至关重要的二级供应链。

市场趋势

透过併购策略性整合，飞机零件售后市场（USM）正在重塑市场格局，旨在扩大维修能力并确保零件供应管道。大规模的售后市场整合正积极收购专业维修店，以建构垂直整合的营业单位，实现零件再认证的内部化并管理原材料供应。这种结构性演变使供应商能够提供全面的零件支持，同时为小规模的竞争对手设定了较高的进入门槛。一家大型售后市场供应商大幅扩展业务组合的案例清晰地展现了这一趋势。根据AAR公司2024年3月发布的新闻稿《AAR完成对Triumph集团产品支援业务的收购》，该公司以7.25亿美元收购了Triumph集团的产品支援业务，从而直接增强了其在全球维修点网路和可用库存方面的实力。

此外，使用次市场零件（USM）支援客机改装为货机的趋势日益明显，这已成为一条独立于标准飞机维修週期之外的明确成长路径。随着业者将老旧客机改装为货机，这些项目的经济可行性很大程度上取决于次市场零件在航电升级、起落架和引擎方面的应用。使用原厂（OEM）零件进行改装往往会降低投资回报率，而二手市场零件已成为该领域唯一的采购标准。长期产业预测进一步印证了这个趋势。根据波音公司于2024年11月发布的《2024年世界航空货运预测》，未来20年，航空业预计需要将1840架飞机改装为货机，这将刺激对用于这些大规模改装项目的再认证材料的持续需求。

目录

第一章概述

第二章：调查方法

第三章执行摘要

第四章：客户心声

第五章：全球航空运输USM市场展望

  • 市场规模及预测
    • 按金额
  • 市占率及预测
    • 依零件类型（引擎、起落架、液压系统、航空电子设备、其他）
    • 飞机类型（宽体机、窄体、支线喷射机、其他）
    • 按地区
    • 按公司（2025 年）
  • 市场地图

第六章：北美航空运输（USM）市场展望

  • 市场规模及预测
  • 市占率及预测
  • 北美洲：国别分析
    • 我们
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥

第七章：欧洲航空运输USM市场展望

  • 市场规模及预测
  • 市占率及预测
  • 欧洲：国别分析
    • 德国
    • 法国
    • 英国
    • 义大利
    • 西班牙

第八章：亚太地区航空运输USM市场展望

  • 市场规模及预测
  • 市占率及预测
  • 亚太地区：国别分析
    • 中国
    • 印度
    • 日本
    • 韩国
    • 澳洲

第九章：中东和非洲USM航空运输市场展望

  • 市场规模及预测
  • 市占率及预测
  • 中东与非洲：国别分析
    • 沙乌地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公国
    • 南非

第十章：南美航空运输市场展望

  • 市场规模及预测
  • 市占率及预测
  • 南美洲：国别分析
    • 巴西
    • 哥伦比亚
    • 阿根廷

第十一章 市场动态

  • 促进因素
  • 任务

第十二章 市场趋势与发展

  • 併购
  • 产品发布
  • 近期趋势

第十三章：全球航空运输USM市场：SWOT分析

第十四章：波特五力分析

  • 产业竞争
  • 新进入者的潜力
  • 供应商的议价能力
  • 顾客权力
  • 替代品的威胁

第十五章 竞争格局

  • AerFin Limited
  • The Boeing Company
  • General Electric Company
  • Honeywell International Inc.
  • GA Telesis, LLC
  • Meggitt PLC
  • MTU Aero Engines AG
  • RTX Corporation
  • Rolls-Royce plc
  • AAR Corp.

第十六章 策略建议

第十七章：关于研究公司及免责声明

简介目录
Product Code: 22325

The Global Air Transport Used Serviceable Material (USM) Market is projected to expand from USD 2.93 Billion in 2025 to USD 3.84 Billion by 2031, reflecting a compound annual growth rate of 4.61%. This sector focuses on the supply of recertified aircraft systems and components harvested from retired airframes, offering operators a financially viable alternative to new parts from original equipment manufacturers for overhaul and maintenance tasks. The market is primarily propelled by the urgent need to curtail airline operating costs and the operational mandate to sustain aging fleets during a period of severe new aircraft production delays. Consequently, carriers are extending the operational lives of their current assets, which intensifies the demand for secondary market components to ensure fleet readiness and mitigate costly aircraft downtime.

Market Overview
Forecast Period2027-2031
Market Size 2025USD 2.93 Billion
Market Size 2031USD 3.84 Billion
CAGR 2026-20314.61%
Fastest Growing SegmentWide-Body
Largest MarketNorth America

However, market expansion is significantly hindered by a critical shortage of high-quality inventory caused by deferred aircraft retirements. Because airlines are retaining older vessels for longer periods to offset delivery shortfalls, the volume of dismantled airframes-which serves as the essential feedstock for USM-has declined. Data from the International Air Transport Association indicates that in 2024, the global backlog of unfulfilled new aircraft orders hit a record high exceeding 17,000 units. This structural bottleneck restricts the number of aircraft entering the dismantling process, thereby directly limiting the supply of serviceable parts necessary to satisfy the industry's escalating demand.

Market Driver

The utilization of Used Serviceable Material (USM) to alleviate new part supply chain disruptions and extended lead times stands as the most prominent factor currently reshaping the market. With Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) encountering significant production bottlenecks for structural components and engines, carriers are increasingly sourcing secondary market parts to bypass long wait times and guarantee fleet availability. This transition signifies a strategic realignment in sourcing, as operators prioritize recertified used parts over unavailable factory-new components to prevent operational paralysis and keep aircraft in service. The impact of this shift is highlighted by the performance of major aftermarket suppliers; according to AAR Corp's 'Fiscal Year 2024 Results' from July 2024, sales to commercial customers increased by 23% year-over-year, a growth trend explicitly linked to the rising demand for used serviceable materials and parts supply solutions.

Additionally, the escalating airline demand for cost-efficient maintenance and overhaul options acts as a critical driver, intensified by the financial burdens of operating older, less efficient aircraft. As carriers extend the service lives of existing airframes, the frequency of component replacements and heavy maintenance visits increases, creating a need for affordable alternatives to expensive new parts to safeguard narrow operating margins. The International Air Transport Association reported that in 2024, the average age of the global commercial fleet reached a record high of 14.8 years, compelling carriers to balance strict budget constraints with rigorous safety standards. Furthermore, the International Air Transport Association's June 2024 'Global Outlook for Air Transport' forecast that the industry's return on invested capital would reach only 5.7% in 2024, falling short of the average cost of capital. Consequently, procuring cost-effective USM has become indispensable for airlines aiming to preserve financial viability while managing the intensive maintenance required for prolonged-service assets.

Market Challenge

The expansion of the Global Air Transport USM Market is currently restricted by an acute shortage of high-quality inventory stemming from deferred aircraft retirements. This sector is heavily dependent on a consistent influx of retired airframes to produce the recertified components needed by operators. However, because airlines are forced to retain aging vessels in active service to sustain capacity, the pipeline for dismantling has effectively dried up. This retention of older assets eliminates the primary source of feedstock, resulting in a severe supply shock that hinders USM providers from leveraging the industry's robust demand for lower-cost maintenance alternatives.

As a result, the market encounters a hard ceiling on revenue growth, as suppliers are unable to secure sufficient inventory volumes to facilitate transactions. This bottleneck is directly attributable to the production challenges plaguing original equipment manufacturers, which impede fleet renewal initiatives. According to the International Air Transport Association, global aircraft deliveries in 2024 dropped to just 1,254 units, falling significantly below the levels necessary for normal industry turnover. This delivery deficit compels carriers to indefinitely postpone scrappage decisions, ensuring that the airframes essential for component harvesting remain in operation rather than entering the secondary supply chain.

Market Trends

The market is being reshaped by the strategic consolidation of USM providers through mergers and acquisitions, as companies aim to expand repair capabilities and secure component supply lines. Large aftermarket integrators are aggressively purchasing specialized repair shops to establish vertically integrated entities, enabling them to internalize component recertification and control feedstock. This structural evolution allows providers to deliver comprehensive component support while establishing high barriers to entry for smaller rivals. This trend was exemplified when a major aftermarket provider significantly broadened its portfolio; according to AAR Corp's March 2024 press release regarding the 'AAR completes acquisition of Triumph Group's Product Support business,' the company finalized the $725 million purchase of Triumph Group's Product Support business, directly enhancing its global repair footprint and access to serviceable inventory.

Furthermore, the expansion of USM utilization to support passenger-to-freighter conversions has arisen as a distinct growth vector that operates independently of standard fleet maintenance cycles. As operators transform aging passenger aircraft into cargo vessels, the economic feasibility of these programs depends heavily on integrating secondary market components for avionics upgrades, landing gear, and engines. Using new OEM parts for these conversions often undermines the return on investment, establishing USM as the exclusive sourcing standard for this segment. This opportunity is highlighted by long-term industry projections; according to Boeing's 'World Air Cargo Forecast 2024' released in November 2024, the sector is expected to require 1,840 freighter conversions over the next two decades, driving sustained consumption of recertified material for these extensive modification programs.

Key Market Players

  • AerFin Limited
  • The Boeing Company
  • General Electric Company
  • Honeywell International Inc.
  • GA Telesis, LLC
  • Meggitt PLC
  • MTU Aero Engines AG
  • RTX Corporation
  • Rolls-Royce plc
  • AAR Corp.

Report Scope

In this report, the Global Air Transport USM Market has been segmented into the following categories, in addition to the industry trends which have also been detailed below:

Air Transport USM Market, By Component Type

  • Engine
  • Landing Gear
  • Hydraulic System
  • Avionics
  • and Others

Air Transport USM Market, By Aircraft Type

  • Wide-Body
  • Narrow-Body
  • Regional Jets
  • and Others

Air Transport USM Market, By Region

  • North America
    • United States
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • France
    • United Kingdom
    • Italy
    • Germany
    • Spain
  • Asia Pacific
    • China
    • India
    • Japan
    • Australia
    • South Korea
  • South America
    • Brazil
    • Argentina
    • Colombia
  • Middle East & Africa
    • South Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE

Competitive Landscape

Company Profiles: Detailed analysis of the major companies present in the Global Air Transport USM Market.

Available Customizations:

Global Air Transport USM Market report with the given market data, TechSci Research offers customizations according to a company's specific needs. The following customization options are available for the report:

Company Information

  • Detailed analysis and profiling of additional market players (up to five).

Table of Contents

1. Product Overview

  • 1.1. Market Definition
  • 1.2. Scope of the Market
    • 1.2.1. Markets Covered
    • 1.2.2. Years Considered for Study
    • 1.2.3. Key Market Segmentations

2. Research Methodology

  • 2.1. Objective of the Study
  • 2.2. Baseline Methodology
  • 2.3. Key Industry Partners
  • 2.4. Major Association and Secondary Sources
  • 2.5. Forecasting Methodology
  • 2.6. Data Triangulation & Validation
  • 2.7. Assumptions and Limitations

3. Executive Summary

  • 3.1. Overview of the Market
  • 3.2. Overview of Key Market Segmentations
  • 3.3. Overview of Key Market Players
  • 3.4. Overview of Key Regions/Countries
  • 3.5. Overview of Market Drivers, Challenges, Trends

4. Voice of Customer

5. Global Air Transport USM Market Outlook

  • 5.1. Market Size & Forecast
    • 5.1.1. By Value
  • 5.2. Market Share & Forecast
    • 5.2.1. By Component Type (Engine, Landing Gear, Hydraulic System, Avionics, and Others)
    • 5.2.2. By Aircraft Type (Wide-Body, Narrow-Body, Regional Jets, and Others)
    • 5.2.3. By Region
    • 5.2.4. By Company (2025)
  • 5.3. Market Map

6. North America Air Transport USM Market Outlook

  • 6.1. Market Size & Forecast
    • 6.1.1. By Value
  • 6.2. Market Share & Forecast
    • 6.2.1. By Component Type
    • 6.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 6.2.3. By Country
  • 6.3. North America: Country Analysis
    • 6.3.1. United States Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 6.3.1.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 6.3.1.1.1. By Value
      • 6.3.1.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 6.3.1.2.1. By Component Type
        • 6.3.1.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 6.3.2. Canada Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 6.3.2.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 6.3.2.1.1. By Value
      • 6.3.2.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 6.3.2.2.1. By Component Type
        • 6.3.2.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 6.3.3. Mexico Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 6.3.3.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 6.3.3.1.1. By Value
      • 6.3.3.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 6.3.3.2.1. By Component Type
        • 6.3.3.2.2. By Aircraft Type

7. Europe Air Transport USM Market Outlook

  • 7.1. Market Size & Forecast
    • 7.1.1. By Value
  • 7.2. Market Share & Forecast
    • 7.2.1. By Component Type
    • 7.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 7.2.3. By Country
  • 7.3. Europe: Country Analysis
    • 7.3.1. Germany Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 7.3.1.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 7.3.1.1.1. By Value
      • 7.3.1.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 7.3.1.2.1. By Component Type
        • 7.3.1.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 7.3.2. France Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 7.3.2.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 7.3.2.1.1. By Value
      • 7.3.2.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 7.3.2.2.1. By Component Type
        • 7.3.2.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 7.3.3. United Kingdom Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 7.3.3.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 7.3.3.1.1. By Value
      • 7.3.3.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 7.3.3.2.1. By Component Type
        • 7.3.3.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 7.3.4. Italy Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 7.3.4.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 7.3.4.1.1. By Value
      • 7.3.4.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 7.3.4.2.1. By Component Type
        • 7.3.4.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 7.3.5. Spain Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 7.3.5.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 7.3.5.1.1. By Value
      • 7.3.5.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 7.3.5.2.1. By Component Type
        • 7.3.5.2.2. By Aircraft Type

8. Asia Pacific Air Transport USM Market Outlook

  • 8.1. Market Size & Forecast
    • 8.1.1. By Value
  • 8.2. Market Share & Forecast
    • 8.2.1. By Component Type
    • 8.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 8.2.3. By Country
  • 8.3. Asia Pacific: Country Analysis
    • 8.3.1. China Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 8.3.1.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 8.3.1.1.1. By Value
      • 8.3.1.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 8.3.1.2.1. By Component Type
        • 8.3.1.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 8.3.2. India Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 8.3.2.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 8.3.2.1.1. By Value
      • 8.3.2.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 8.3.2.2.1. By Component Type
        • 8.3.2.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 8.3.3. Japan Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 8.3.3.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 8.3.3.1.1. By Value
      • 8.3.3.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 8.3.3.2.1. By Component Type
        • 8.3.3.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 8.3.4. South Korea Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 8.3.4.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 8.3.4.1.1. By Value
      • 8.3.4.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 8.3.4.2.1. By Component Type
        • 8.3.4.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 8.3.5. Australia Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 8.3.5.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 8.3.5.1.1. By Value
      • 8.3.5.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 8.3.5.2.1. By Component Type
        • 8.3.5.2.2. By Aircraft Type

9. Middle East & Africa Air Transport USM Market Outlook

  • 9.1. Market Size & Forecast
    • 9.1.1. By Value
  • 9.2. Market Share & Forecast
    • 9.2.1. By Component Type
    • 9.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 9.2.3. By Country
  • 9.3. Middle East & Africa: Country Analysis
    • 9.3.1. Saudi Arabia Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 9.3.1.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 9.3.1.1.1. By Value
      • 9.3.1.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 9.3.1.2.1. By Component Type
        • 9.3.1.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 9.3.2. UAE Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 9.3.2.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 9.3.2.1.1. By Value
      • 9.3.2.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 9.3.2.2.1. By Component Type
        • 9.3.2.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 9.3.3. South Africa Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 9.3.3.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 9.3.3.1.1. By Value
      • 9.3.3.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 9.3.3.2.1. By Component Type
        • 9.3.3.2.2. By Aircraft Type

10. South America Air Transport USM Market Outlook

  • 10.1. Market Size & Forecast
    • 10.1.1. By Value
  • 10.2. Market Share & Forecast
    • 10.2.1. By Component Type
    • 10.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 10.2.3. By Country
  • 10.3. South America: Country Analysis
    • 10.3.1. Brazil Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 10.3.1.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 10.3.1.1.1. By Value
      • 10.3.1.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 10.3.1.2.1. By Component Type
        • 10.3.1.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 10.3.2. Colombia Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 10.3.2.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 10.3.2.1.1. By Value
      • 10.3.2.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 10.3.2.2.1. By Component Type
        • 10.3.2.2.2. By Aircraft Type
    • 10.3.3. Argentina Air Transport USM Market Outlook
      • 10.3.3.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 10.3.3.1.1. By Value
      • 10.3.3.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 10.3.3.2.1. By Component Type
        • 10.3.3.2.2. By Aircraft Type

11. Market Dynamics

  • 11.1. Drivers
  • 11.2. Challenges

12. Market Trends & Developments

  • 12.1. Merger & Acquisition (If Any)
  • 12.2. Product Launches (If Any)
  • 12.3. Recent Developments

13. Global Air Transport USM Market: SWOT Analysis

14. Porter's Five Forces Analysis

  • 14.1. Competition in the Industry
  • 14.2. Potential of New Entrants
  • 14.3. Power of Suppliers
  • 14.4. Power of Customers
  • 14.5. Threat of Substitute Products

15. Competitive Landscape

  • 15.1. AerFin Limited
    • 15.1.1. Business Overview
    • 15.1.2. Products & Services
    • 15.1.3. Recent Developments
    • 15.1.4. Key Personnel
    • 15.1.5. SWOT Analysis
  • 15.2. The Boeing Company
  • 15.3. General Electric Company
  • 15.4. Honeywell International Inc.
  • 15.5. GA Telesis, LLC
  • 15.6. Meggitt PLC
  • 15.7. MTU Aero Engines AG
  • 15.8. RTX Corporation
  • 15.9. Rolls-Royce plc
  • 15.10. AAR Corp.

16. Strategic Recommendations

17. About Us & Disclaimer