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市场调查报告书
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1609929

2025-2033 年日本电竞市场规模、份额、趋势和收入模式、平台、游戏和地区预测

Japan Esports Market Size, Share, Trends and Forecast by Revenue Model, Platform, Games, and Region, 2025-2033
出版日期: | 出版商: IMARC | 英文 116 Pages | 商品交期: 5-7个工作天内

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简介目录

2024 年日本电竞市场规模为 1.399IMARC Group美元。该市场正在经历显着扩张，这主要得益于年轻人口中越来越受欢迎以及政府支持和产业合作。此外，扩大职业联赛和锦标赛、将电子竞技纳入教育机构以及粉丝参与的串流媒体进步进一步促进了市场扩张。

电子竞技在日本年轻人中的日益普及是一个主要的市场驱动力。竞技游戏已转变为一种主流娱乐形式，年轻观众积极参与玩和观看电竞赛事。例如，2024 年对日本年轻人的一项调查发现，18-39 岁的年轻人中超过 40% 相信电竞将成为未来奥运的一部分。 18-29 岁族群 (43.7%) 和 30 多岁族群 (42.5%) 的支持率尤其高。此外，48% 的参与者认为电子竞技是一项有望普及的运动。这一趋势突显了电子竞技在年轻人中越来越受欢迎，反映出他们认识到游戏是一门合法的竞技学科。职业锦标赛日益普及，加上科技和串流平台的进步，已将电子竞技提升为主流的娱乐。年轻观众不仅作为玩家，而且作为热情的观众积极参与电子竞技，推动了收视率和行业的成长。电子竞技纳入奥运的可能性与游戏作为全球公认的运动的不断发展的观念相一致，进一步巩固了其在日本年轻人中的文化意义。

政府措施和产业合作也大大推动了日本电竞市场的发展。日本政府承认电子竞技的潜在经济和社会效益，放宽了对奖金的法律限制，并推动将其纳入旅游业和地区復兴计划，从而拥抱电子竞技。透过创建职业联赛、举办大型赛事、完善竞技游戏基础设施，游戏开发商、赞助商和活动策划者之间的合作进一步刺激了市场的扩张。例如，2024 年9 月，Apex 英雄锦标赛系列赛(ALGS) 与索尼合作，使其INZONE 游戏品牌成为2025 年初在日本札幌举行的ALGS 第4 届锦标赛的官方显示器提供商。共同设计与 Fnatic 合作，将在活动中亮相。 ALGS 目前拥有四个合作伙伴，包括 Alienware、Herman Miller 和 Battle Beaver。这些战略努力将日本定位为亚洲领先的电子竞技中心，推动了国内外对该行业的兴趣。

日本电竞市场趋势：

职业联赛和锦标赛的扩展

日本电竞产业的一个显着趋势是职业电竞联赛和比赛的快速扩张。 《英雄联盟》、《街头霸王》和《Valorant》等着名电玩游戏已经变得相当流行，并帮助创建了有组织的联赛和锦标赛。除了展示精英人才外，这些活动还凭藉现场场地和网路广播服务吸引了大量人群。由于电子竞技作为一项观赏性运动越来越受欢迎，赞助商和广告商对电子竞技进行了大量投资，这进一步推动了该行业的专业化。例如，2024 年 3 月，在日本拥有重要影响力的 Riot Games 宣布计划修改英雄联盟 (LoL) 电竞的商业模式，旨在透过减少对赞助的依赖来实现永续发展。去年，LoL Esports MSI 和世界赛的 AMA 分别成长了 58% 和 65%，地区联赛整体成长了 16%。这些变化包括团队的固定津贴、游戏内数位内容的收入分享，以及分为普通（50%）、竞争（35%）和同人圈（15%）份额的全球收入池（GRP）。 2024 年初，随着惠普和喜力等合作伙伴的加入，赞助量也出现成长。此外，这些锦标赛已成为日本文化和娱乐产业不可或缺的一部分，吸引了当地和国际的注意。

将电子竞技融入教育和培训

随着电子竞技作为合法的职业路线越来越受欢迎，它越来越多地被纳入日本的教育和培训机构。学校和大学正在引入强调团队合作、策略发展和游戏能力的电子竞技项目。这些计划还提供了对该行业技术和商业元素的见解。例如，2024年，天普大学日本校区（TUJ）与亚洲电竞联合会（AESF）合作，加强电竞教育、训练和比赛。 TUJ 电竞队于 1 月 20 日至 21 日和 2 月 3 日至 4 日参加筑波大学的游戏赛事。这些倡议旨在培养下一代电竞专业人士，包括选手、评论员和活动组织者。透过促进人才发展，日本正在将自己定位为全球电子竞技舞台上的一支有竞争力的力量。

串流媒体和粉丝参与的进步

日本电子竞技产业的未来正在受到串流媒体技术和粉丝互动策略的发展的影响。玩家、主播和观众之间的即时交流可以透过 Twitch、YouTube Gaming 和国内服务等平台实现。透过加强粉丝网络和改善观众体验，这种互动可以提高参与度和忠诚度。例如，根据一项串流媒体排行榜调查，2024 年日本的串流观看时间超过 21.7 亿小时，覆盖 YouTube、Twitch 和 SOOP 等 10 个平台。此外，幕后影片和互动直播等创新内容格式重新定义了球迷与他们喜爱的球队和球员的联繫方式。这些进步不仅扩大了收视率，也创造了额外的收入来源，巩固了日本作为电竞生态系统关键参与者的地位。

目录

第一章：前言

第 2 章：范围与方法

  • 研究目的
  • 利害关係人
  • 数据来源
    • 主要来源
    • 二手资料
  • 市场预测
    • 自下而上的方法
    • 自上而下的方法
  • 预测方法

第 3 章：执行摘要

第 4 章：日本电竞市场 - 简介

  • 概述
  • 市场动态
  • 产业动态
  • 竞争情报

第 5 章：日本电竞市场格局

  • 历史与当前市场趋势（2019-2024）
  • 市场预测（2025-2033）

第 6 章：日本电竞市场 - 细分：依收入模式划分

  • 媒体权利
    • 概述
    • 历史与当前市场趋势（2019-2024）
    • 市场预测（2025-2033）
  • 广告和赞助
    • 概述
    • 历史与当前市场趋势（2019-2024）
    • 市场预测（2025-2033）
  • 商品和门票
    • 概述
    • 历史与当前市场趋势（2019-2024）
    • 市场预测（2025-2033）
  • 其他的
    • 历史与当前市场趋势（2019-2024）
    • 市场预测（2025-2033）

第 7 章：日本电竞市场 - 细分：依平台划分

  • 基于 PC 的电子竞技
    • 概述
    • 历史与当前市场趋势（2019-2024）
    • 市场预测（2025-2033）
  • 基于游戏机的电子竞技
    • 概述
    • 历史与当前市场趋势（2019-2024）
    • 市场预测（2025-2033）
  • 手机和平板电脑
    • 概述
    • 历史与当前市场趋势（2019-2024）
    • 市场预测（2025-2033）

第 8 章：日本电竞市场 - 细分：按游戏划分

  • 多人线上竞技竞技场 (MOBA)
    • 概述
    • 历史与当前市场趋势（2019-2024）
    • 市场预测（2025-2033）
  • 玩家对玩家 (PvP)
    • 概述
    • 历史与当前市场趋势（2019-2024）
    • 市场预测（2025-2033）
  • 第一人称射击游戏 (FPS)
    • 概述
    • 历史与当前市场趋势（2019-2024）
    • 市场预测（2025-2033）
  • 即时策略 (RTS)
    • 概述
    • 历史与当前市场趋势（2019-2024）
    • 市场预测（2025-2033）

第 9 章：日本电竞市场 - 竞争格局

  • 概述
  • 市场结构
  • 市场参与者定位
  • 最佳制胜策略
  • 竞争仪表板
  • 公司评估象限

第 10 章：关键参与者简介

  • Company A
    • Business Overview
    • Product Portfolio
    • Business Strategies
    • SWOT Analysis
    • Major News and Events
  • Company B
    • Business Overview
    • Product Portfolio
    • Business Strategies
    • SWOT Analysis
    • Major News and Events
  • Company C
    • Business Overview
    • Product Portfolio
    • Business Strategies
    • SWOT Analysis
    • Major News and Events
  • Company D
    • Business Overview
    • Product Portfolio
    • Business Strategies
    • SWOT Analysis
    • Major News and Events
  • Company E
    • Business Overview
    • Product Portfolio
    • Business Strategies
    • SWOT Analysis
    • Major News and Events

第 11 章：日本电竞市场 - 产业分析

  • 驱动因素、限制因素和机会
    • 概述
    • 司机
    • 限制
    • 机会
  • 波特五力分析
    • 概述
    • 买家的议价能力
    • 供应商的议价能力
    • 竞争程度
    • 新进入者的威胁
    • 替代品的威胁
  • 价值链分析

第 12 章：附录

简介目录
Product Code: SR112024A11596

The Japan esports market size was valued at USD 139.9 Million in 2024. Looking forward, IMARC Group estimates the market to reach USD 391.1 Million by 2033, exhibiting a CAGR of 12.1% from 2025-2033. The market is witnessing significant expansion, principally bolstered by growing popularity among younger demographics and government support and industry collaboration. Additionally, expanding professional leagues and tournaments, integration of esports into education institutions, and advancements in streaming with fan engagements further contribute to the market expansion.

The increasing popularity of esports among Japan's younger demographics is a major market driver. Competitive gaming has transformed into a mainstream form of entertainment, with younger audiences actively engaging in both playing and viewing esports events. For instance, a 2024 survey of young Japanese individuals found that more than 40% of those aged 18-39 believe esports will become part of future Olympics. Support was notably high among 18-29-year-olds (43.7%) and those in their 30s (42.5%). Furthermore, 48% of participants view esports as a sport poised to gain popularity. This trend highlights the growing popularity of esports among younger demographics, reflecting their recognition of gaming as a legitimate competitive discipline. The increasing prevalence of professional tournaments, coupled with advancements in technology and streaming platforms, has elevated esports into mainstream entertainment. Young audiences actively engage with esports, not only as players but also as enthusiastic spectators, driving viewership and industry growth. The potential inclusion of esports in the Olympics aligns with the evolving perception of gaming as a globally recognized sport, further solidifying its cultural significance among Japan's youth.

Government initiatives and industry collaborations are also significantly boosting Japan's esports market. The Japanese government has embraced esports by easing legal restrictions on prize money and promoting its incorporation into tourism and regional regeneration initiatives, acknowledging the potential economic and social benefits of the sport. By creating professional leagues, holding major tournaments, and improving the infrastructure for competitive gaming, collaborations between game developers, sponsors, and event planners have further stimulated the market's expansion. For instance, in September 2024, the Apex Legends Championship Series (ALGS) partnered with Sony, making its INZONE gaming brand the official monitor provider for the ALGS Year 4 Championship in Sapporo, Japan, in early 2025. Sony's M10S monitors, co-designed with Fnatic, will feature at the event. ALGS now has four partners, including Alienware, Herman Miller, and Battle Beaver. These strategic efforts are positioning Japan as a leading esports hub in Asia, driving both domestic and international interest in the industry.

Japan Esports Market Trends:

Expansion of Professional Leagues and Tournaments

One notable trend in Japan's esports business is the quick expansion of professional esports leagues and competitions. Well-known video games like League of Legends, Street Fighter, and Valorant have become quite popular and have helped to create organized leagues and championships. In addition to showcasing elite talent, these events draw sizable crowds thanks to live venues and internet broadcast services. Sponsors and advertisers have made significant investments in esports because of its growing popularity as a spectator sport, which has further professionalized the sector. For instance, in March 2024, Riot Games, with significant presence in Japan, announced plans to revise the business model of League of Legends (LoL) Esports, aiming for sustainability by reducing dependence on sponsorships. In the previous year, LoL Esports saw a 58% and 65% increase in AMA for its MSI and Worlds events, respectively, with overall regional league growth of 16%. The changes include fixed stipends for teams, revenue sharing from in-game digital content, and a Global Revenue Pool (GRP) divided into General (50%), Competitive (35%), and Fandom (15%) shares. Sponsorships also showed growth in early 2024, with partners like HP and Heineken joining. Additionally, these tournaments have become integral to Japan's cultural and entertainment sectors, drawing both local and international attention.

Integration of Esports into Education and Training

As esports gains popularity as a legitimate professional route, it is being incorporated more and more into Japan's educational and training institutions. Esports programs that emphasize teamwork, strategy development, and gaming abilities are being introduced by schools and universities. These programs also provide insights into the technology and commercial elements of the industry. For instance, in 2024, Temple University, Japan Campus (TUJ) partnered with the Asian Electronic Sports Federation (AESF) to enhance esports education, training, and competitions. The TUJ esports team competed in the University of Tsukuba's gaming events on January 20-21 and February 3-4. These initiatives aim to nurture the next generation of esports professionals, including players, commentators, and event organizers. By fostering talent development, Japan is positioning itself as a competitive force in the global esports arena.

Advancements in Streaming and Fan Engagement

The future of the esports industry in Japan is being shaped by the development of streaming technologies and fan interaction tactics. Real-time communication between players, streamers, and viewers has been made possible via platforms such as Twitch, YouTube Gaming, and domestic services. By strengthening fan networks and improving viewer experiences, this interaction increases engagement and loyalty. For instance, in 2024, according to a stream charts survey, Japan's streams generated over 2.17 billion watched hours, spanning ten platforms including YouTube, Twitch, and SOOP. Moreover, innovative content formats, such as behind-the-scenes videos and interactive live streams, redefine how fans connect with their favorite teams and players. These advancements not only expand viewership but also create additional revenue streams, solidifying Japan's position as a key player in the esports ecosystem.

Japan Esports Industry Segmentation:

Analysis by Revenue Model:

Media Rights

Advertising and Sponsorships

Merchandise and Tickets

Others

Media rights refer to the license contracts that permit broadcasters and streaming services to disseminate esports content. This revenue model is essential to the esports industry in Japan since it makes money from the rising popularity of competitive gaming. Businesses obtain exclusive broadcasting rights to well-known leagues and tournaments, increasing viewership and making significant profits. By encouraging professionalization, drawing funding from sponsors and media corporations, and elevating esports to the status of popular entertainment, this strategy helps the market. Increased exposure via media rights also boosts fan interaction and quickens the expansion of the industry.

In the revenue model section, sponsorships and advertising refer to the monetary contributions made by companies and organizations to advertise their goods or services through esports teams, players, or events. Because it offers substantial funding and raises awareness of esports activities, this approach is essential to the Japanese esports sector. Prominent businesses spend money on sponsorships to reach a very interested audience, and running ads during competitions or streams guarantees broad brand awareness. This win-win strategy promotes the professionalization and growth of esports in Japan while increasing industry revenue.

Sales of merchandise and tickets are important parts of the business model in the Japanese esports market, which has greatly aided in its expansion. Branded clothing, accessories, and collectibles are examples of merchandise, and live esports competitions and events provide ticket sales. These channels improve fan interaction and give teams, event planners, and sponsors a direct source of income. Esports' rising popularity in Japan has raised demand for premium goods and event access, creating a thriving ecosystem that promotes long-term viability and financial success for all parties involved in the sector.

Analysis by Platform:

PC-based Esports

Consoles-based Esports

Mobile and Tablets

PC-based esports are essential to the Japanese esports market because of its excellent visuals, adaptable configurations, and compatibility with top-tier accessories. Professionals and casual gamers alike are drawn to PC-based esports, which creates a fiercely competitive atmosphere that increases sponsorships and viewership. The scalability of the platform facilitates the holding of major competitions, strengthening Japan's position in the world of esports and fostering the growth of a strong and profitable gaming industry.

Console-based esports in the platform segment involves competitive gaming using consoles. This segment holds significant importance in the Japan esports market due to the country's strong affinity for console gaming. The accessibility of consoles and their widespread adoption among Japanese consumers have helped foster a robust competitive gaming culture. Console-based esports also drive revenue through tournaments, merchandise, and sponsorships, contributing to the market's steady growth.

The mobile and tablet segment in Japan's esports market represents gaming platforms optimized for handheld devices, offering accessibility and convenience to players and viewers. With the widespread adoption of smartphones and tablets in Japan, these platforms have become a cornerstone for esports participation and audience engagement. They cater to casual gamers and competitive players, enabling seamless gameplay and live streaming on the go. This segment is driving growth in Japan's esports industry by broadening its reach, attracting new demographics, and fostering community interaction through easily accessible, portable gaming solutions.

Analysis by Games:

Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA)

Player vs Players (PvP)

First Person Shooters (FPS)

Real Time Strategy (RTS)

Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA) games are a popular genre in esports, involving team-based gameplay where players control unique characters to achieve strategic objectives. MOBA games foster competitive engagement, making them a staple for professional tournaments and leagues. Their strategic depth and fast-paced action captivate audiences, boosting viewership and sponsorship opportunities. MOBA's popularity strengthens Japan's esports ecosystem, driving growth in talent development, fan engagement, and overall market expansion.

Player versus Player (PvP) games in the games segment involve direct competition between individual players or teams within a game environment. This format is a cornerstone of the Japan esports market, with PvP games fostering intense competition and skill-based gameplay, attracting both participants and spectators. In Japan, these games drive engagement through local and international tournaments, contributing to esports' cultural prominence. Additionally, PvP titles generate revenue streams through sponsorships, ticket sales, in-game purchases, and live-streaming partnerships, supporting market expansion.

First-person shooter (FPS) games form a crucial segment of Japan's esports market, known for their immersive gameplay and strategic depth. FPS games enhance the competitive ecosystem by offering engaging tournaments, fostering team collaboration, and showcasing individual skills. In Japan, their fast-paced, action-driven nature appeals to younger audiences, driving viewership and sponsorship opportunities. This genre's popularity continues to support the growth of Japan's esports industry, contributing to its global prominence.

Real-time strategy (RTS) games involve players managing resources, units, and strategies in real time to outmaneuver opponents. This genre has gained significant traction in Japan's esports market due to its demand for quick decision-making and strategic thinking, which aligns with the preferences of competitive gaming audiences. The RTS segment is fostering growth in esports by attracting skilled players and engaging fans through tournaments and live-streamed events. Its inclusion in esports leagues enhances viewership and sponsorship opportunities, contributing to the overall expansion of Japan's esports industry.

Competitive Landscape:

The competitive landscape of the market is marked by intense competition among gaming publishers, technology providers, and event organizers. Prominent players include major gaming companies that drive innovation and sponsorships. For instance, in October 2024, Konami confirmed 6 global releases, including Suikoden I&II HD Remaster, Metal Gear Solid Delta: Snake Eater, Yu-Gi-Oh! Early Days Collection, and two Silent Hill titles. In addition, emerging startups and local organizations are also carving out niches in tournament management and player development. Collaboration with global esports brands further intensifies the competitive landscape, fostering advancements in infrastructure, audience engagement, and monetization strategies.

The report provides a comprehensive analysis of the competitive landscape in the Japan esports market with detailed profiles of all major companies.

Latest News and Developments:

In 2024, LightSpeed Studios, creators of PUBG Mobile and Undawn, launched a new Japan-based development studio led by Capcom legend Hideaki Itsuno. Located in Tokyo and Osaka, the studio will focus on AAA game development, though details on specific projects remain undisclosed.

In June 2024, the Japan Esports Union joined the Japanese Olympic Committee as an associate member, enabling teams to officially represent Japan in international esports until March 31, 2027. With esports participation growing, schools are being established to teach practical skills and knowledge from gaming professionals, highlighting esports' rising prominence.

Key Questions Answered in This Report

  • 1. What is esports?
  • 2. How big is the Japan esports market?
  • 3. What is the expected growth rate of the Japan esports market during 2025-2033?
  • 4. What are the key factors driving the Japan esports market?

Table of Contents

1 Preface

2 Scope and Methodology

  • 2.1 Objectives of the Study
  • 2.2 Stakeholders
  • 2.3 Data Sources
    • 2.3.1 Primary Sources
    • 2.3.2 Secondary Sources
  • 2.4 Market Estimation
    • 2.4.1 Bottom-Up Approach
    • 2.4.2 Top-Down Approach
  • 2.5 Forecasting Methodology

3 Executive Summary

4 Japan Esports Market - Introduction

  • 4.1 Overview
  • 4.2 Market Dynamics
  • 4.3 Industry Trends
  • 4.4 Competitive Intelligence

5 Japan Esports Market Landscape

  • 5.1 Historical and Current Market Trends (2019-2024)
  • 5.2 Market Forecast (2025-2033)

6 Japan Esports Market - Breakup by Revenue Model

  • 6.1 Media Rights
    • 6.1.1 Overview
    • 6.1.2 Historical and Current Market Trends (2019-2024)
    • 6.1.3 Market Forecast (2025-2033)
  • 6.2 Advertising and Sponsorships
    • 6.2.1 Overview
    • 6.2.2 Historical and Current Market Trends (2019-2024)
    • 6.2.3 Market Forecast (2025-2033)
  • 6.3 Merchandise and Tickets
    • 6.3.1 Overview
    • 6.3.2 Historical and Current Market Trends (2019-2024)
    • 6.3.3 Market Forecast (2025-2033)
  • 6.4 Others
    • 6.4.1 Historical and Current Market Trends (2019-2024)
    • 6.4.2 Market Forecast (2025-2033)

7 Japan Esports Market - Breakup by Platform

  • 7.1 PC-based Esports
    • 7.1.1 Overview
    • 7.1.2 Historical and Current Market Trends (2019-2024)
    • 7.1.3 Market Forecast (2025-2033)
  • 7.2 Consoles-based Esports
    • 7.2.1 Overview
    • 7.2.2 Historical and Current Market Trends (2019-2024)
    • 7.2.3 Market Forecast (2025-2033)
  • 7.3 Mobile and Tablets
    • 7.3.1 Overview
    • 7.3.2 Historical and Current Market Trends (2019-2024)
    • 7.3.3 Market Forecast (2025-2033)

8 Japan Esports Market - Breakup by Games

  • 8.1 Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA)
    • 8.1.1 Overview
    • 8.1.2 Historical and Current Market Trends (2019-2024)
    • 8.1.3 Market Forecast (2025-2033)
  • 8.2 Player vs Players (PvP)
    • 8.2.1 Overview
    • 8.2.2 Historical and Current Market Trends (2019-2024)
    • 8.2.3 Market Forecast (2025-2033)
  • 8.3 First Person Shooters (FPS)
    • 8.3.1 Overview
    • 8.3.2 Historical and Current Market Trends (2019-2024)
    • 8.3.3 Market Forecast (2025-2033)
  • 8.4 Real Time Strategy (RTS)
    • 8.4.1 Overview
    • 8.4.2 Historical and Current Market Trends (2019-2024)
    • 8.4.3 Market Forecast (2025-2033)

9 Japan Esports Market - Competitive Landscape

  • 9.1 Overview
  • 9.2 Market Structure
  • 9.3 Market Player Positioning
  • 9.4 Top Winning Strategies
  • 9.5 Competitive Dashboard
  • 9.6 Company Evaluation Quadrant

10 Profiles of Key Players

  • 10.1 Company A
    • 10.1.1 Business Overview
    • 10.1.2 Product Portfolio
    • 10.1.3 Business Strategies
    • 10.1.4 SWOT Analysis
    • 10.1.5 Major News and Events
  • 10.2 Company B
    • 10.2.1 Business Overview
    • 10.2.2 Product Portfolio
    • 10.2.3 Business Strategies
    • 10.2.4 SWOT Analysis
    • 10.2.5 Major News and Events
  • 10.3 Company C
    • 10.3.1 Business Overview
    • 10.3.2 Product Portfolio
    • 10.3.3 Business Strategies
    • 10.3.4 SWOT Analysis
    • 10.3.5 Major News and Events
  • 10.4 Company D
    • 10.4.1 Business Overview
    • 10.4.2 Product Portfolio
    • 10.4.3 Business Strategies
    • 10.4.4 SWOT Analysis
    • 10.4.5 Major News and Events
  • 10.5 Company E
    • 10.5.1 Business Overview
    • 10.5.2 Product Portfolio
    • 10.5.3 Business Strategies
    • 10.5.4 SWOT Analysis
    • 10.5.5 Major News and Events

11 Japan Esports Market - Industry Analysis

  • 11.1 Drivers, Restraints, and Opportunities
    • 11.1.1 Overview
    • 11.1.2 Drivers
    • 11.1.3 Restraints
    • 11.1.4 Opportunities
  • 11.2 Porters Five Forces Analysis
    • 11.2.1 Overview
    • 11.2.2 Bargaining Power of Buyers
    • 11.2.3 Bargaining Power of Suppliers
    • 11.2.4 Degree of Competition
    • 11.2.5 Threat of New Entrants
    • 11.2.6 Threat of Substitutes
  • 11.3 Value Chain Analysis

12 Appendix