封面
市场调查报告书
商品编码
1617153

到 2030 年Oxo生物分解性塑胶包装市场预测:按产品类型、材料类型、应用、最终用户和地区进行的全球分析

Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Forecasts to 2030 - Global Analysis By Product Type (Bags, Films, Containers and Boxes, Bottles, Trays and Cups, Labels and Tags and Other Product Types), Material Type, Application, End User and By Geography

出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 200+ Pages | 商品交期: 2-3个工作天内

价格

根据 Stratistics MRC 的数据,到 2024 年,全球Oxo生物分解性塑胶包装市场将达到 25 亿美元,预计在预测期内将以 7.8% 的复合年增长率成长,到 2030 年达到 39 亿美元。

Oxo生物分解性塑胶包装是一种通常含有称为「促氧化剂」的添加剂的塑料,当暴露于氧气、热量和阳光时,会加速分解过程。这些添加剂有助于它比传统塑胶更快地分解,使其分解成更小、更无害的碎片。目标是减少塑胶废弃物对环境的影响,特别是垃圾掩埋场和海洋中的塑胶废物。

对永续包装解决方案的需求不断增长

对永续包装解决方案的需求不断增长正在推动市场成长。随着消费者和企业寻求传统塑胶的环保替代品,Oxo生物分解性材料因其在环境中快速降解而越来越受欢迎。这种转变是由日益增长的环境问题、日益严格的法规以及对减少塑胶废弃物的日益关注所推动的,从而推动各行业采用更永续和负责任的包装方法。

缺乏标准化测试和认证

市场上缺乏标准化测试和认证可能会导致产品性能和环境影响的变化。如果没有明确的法规,製造商可能会生产出不会像声称的那样降解的塑料,从而损害消费者的信任和环境目标。缺乏监督也可能导致废弃物管理解决方案无效,加剧塑胶污染,而不是提供传统塑胶的可行且环保的替代品。

Oxo生物分解性技术的进展

市场上Oxo生物分解性技术的进步主要集中在提高塑胶在环境中的降解率。这些创新结合了金属添加剂,可加速塑胶的分解,在暴露于阳光、热或氧气时促进更快的分解。该技术旨在减少塑胶废弃物,提供传统塑胶更永续的替代品,同时保持各行业包装应用的强度和耐用性。

对生物分解过程的担忧

市场对生物分解过程的担忧源自于这些塑胶在现实环境条件下降解效果的不确定性。在某些情况下,分解可能缓慢或不完全,留下微塑料,从而加剧污染。此外,降解速度取决于温度和紫外线照射等因素,这可能会破坏该技术的预期环境效益,并增加消费者和监管机构对永续性的怀疑。

COVID-19 的影响:

COVID-19 大流行扰乱了供应链并改变了消费者行为,对市场产生了重大影响。健康和安全问题增加了对医疗和食品包装一次性塑胶的需求,导致塑胶废弃物增加。同时,经济挑战也减缓了对永续包装替代品的投资。然而,疫情后对卫生和环境永续性的日益关注,重新燃起了人们对Oxo生物分解性塑胶等环保解决方案的兴趣。

预计箱包市场在预测期内将是最大的市场

预计袋子领域将在预测期内占据最大的市场占有率,因为它的降解速度比传统塑胶更快。这些袋子采用金属添加剂设计,当暴露于氧气、热量和紫外线时会加速分解。它们提供了比传统塑胶袋更环保的替代品,同时保持耐用性和功能性,使其成为零售商、食品包装和废弃物管理解决方案的首选。

食品和饮料领域预计在预测期内复合年增长率最高。

由于食品和饮料领域有减少环境影响的潜力,预计在预测期内复合年增长率最高。这些塑胶为零嘴零食、饮料和已调理食品等产品的包装提供了环保的替代品。增强的生物分解特性有助于减少长期塑胶污染,同时保持食品安全所需的耐用性和新鲜度。这项变化恰逢消费者对永续包装解决方案的需求不断增长。

比最大的地区

由于环境意识的提高和有关塑胶废弃物的法规的收紧,预计北美地区在估计和预测期内将占据最大的市场占有率。该地区的公司正在采用Oxo生物分解性塑胶来减少碳排放并遵守永续性目标。儘管存在成本和认证标准方面的挑战,但食品和饮料、零售和消费品等行业的需求不断增长,使其成为环保包装解决方案的主要市场。

复合年增长率最高的地区:

预计亚太地区在预测期内将实现最高成长率。政府和消费者越来越关注塑胶废弃物对环境的影响,并正在寻找Oxo生物分解性塑胶等替代品。此外,食品和饮料、消费品和零售等行业正在寻求更永续的包装解决方案。Oxo生物分解性塑胶提供了传统塑胶的实用替代品,并帮助公司实现其永续性目标。

免费客製化服务

订阅此报告的客户可以存取以下免费自订选项之一:

  • 公司简介
    • 其他市场参与者的综合分析(最多 3 家公司)
    • 主要企业SWOT分析(最多3家企业)
  • 区域分割
    • 根据客户兴趣对主要国家的市场估计、预测和复合年增长率(註:基于可行性检查)
  • 竞争标基准化分析
    • 根据产品系列、地理分布和策略联盟对主要企业基准化分析

目录

第一章执行摘要

第二章 前言

  • 概述
  • 相关利益者
  • 调查范围
  • 调查方法
    • 资料探勘
    • 资料分析
    • 资料检验
    • 研究途径
  • 研究资讯来源
    • 主要研究资讯来源
    • 二次研究资讯来源
    • 先决条件

第三章市场趋势分析

  • 司机
  • 抑制因素
  • 机会
  • 威胁
  • 产品分析
  • 应用分析
  • 最终用户分析
  • 新兴市场
  • COVID-19 的影响

第4章波特五力分析

  • 供应商的议价能力
  • 买方议价能力
  • 替代品的威胁
  • 新进入者的威胁
  • 竞争公司之间的敌对关係

第五章全球Oxo生物分解性塑胶包装市场:依产品类型

  • 包包
  • 电影
  • 容器和盒子
  • 瓶子
  • 托盘和杯子
  • 标籤和标记
  • 其他产品类型

第六章全球Oxo生物分解性塑胶包装市场:依材料类型

  • 聚乙烯(PE)
  • 聚丙烯(PP)
  • 聚苯乙烯(PS)
  • 聚氯乙烯(PVC)
  • 聚对苯二甲酸乙二酯 (PET)
  • 其他材料类型

第七章全球Oxo生物分解性塑胶包装市场:依应用分类

  • 冷冻食品包装
  • 注射器包装
  • 电子封装
  • 运输包装
  • 工业班轮
  • 多层膜
  • 其他用途

第八章全球Oxo生物分解性塑胶包装市场:依最终用户分类

  • 製药
  • 化妆品/个人护理
  • 产业
  • 农业
  • 食品/饮料
  • 零售/消费品
  • 其他最终用户

第九章全球Oxo生物分解性塑胶包装市场:按地区

  • 北美洲
    • 美国
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 欧洲
    • 德国
    • 英国
    • 义大利
    • 法国
    • 西班牙
    • 其他欧洲国家
  • 亚太地区
    • 日本
    • 中国
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 纽西兰
    • 韩国
    • 其他亚太地区
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 南美洲其他地区
  • 中东/非洲
    • 沙乌地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公国
    • 卡达
    • 南非
    • 其他中东和非洲

第10章 主要进展

  • 合约、伙伴关係、合作和合资企业
  • 收购和合併
  • 新产品发布
  • 业务拓展
  • 其他关键策略

第十一章 公司概况

  • Plastipak Packaging
  • AEP Industries Inc.
  • Berry Global, Inc.
  • Sealed Air Corporation
  • SABIC
  • Dow Chemical Company
  • Green Dot Bioplastics
  • Ecovative Design
  • Veolia North America
  • Tetra Pak
  • Mondi Group
  • ExxonMobil Chemical
  • Skymark Packaging
  • Futamura Chemical Co., Ltd.
  • Teijin Limited
Product Code: SMRC28031

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market is accounted for $2.5 billion in 2024 and is expected to reach $3.9 billion by 2030 growing at a CAGR of 7.8% during the forecast period. Oxo-biodegradable plastic packaging is a type of plastic that contains additives, often referred to as "pro-oxidants," which accelerate the degradation process when exposed to oxygen, heat, or sunlight. These additives help the plastic break down more quickly compared to traditional plastics, allowing it to degrade into smaller, non-toxic fragments. The goal is to reduce the environmental impact of plastic waste, particularly in landfills and oceans.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Rising demand for sustainable packaging solutions

The rising demand for sustainable packaging solutions is driving growth in the market. As consumers and businesses seek eco-friendly alternatives to traditional plastics, oxo-biodegradable options are gaining popularity due to their ability to degrade faster in the environment. This shift is fueled by increasing environmental concerns, stricter regulations, and a growing emphasis on reducing plastic waste, pushing industries to adopt more sustainable and responsible packaging practices.

Restraint:

Lack of standardized testing and certification

The lack of standardized testing and certification in the market can lead to inconsistencies in product performance and environmental impact. Without clear regulations, manufacturers may produce plastics that do not degrade as claimed, undermining consumer trust and environmental goals. This lack of oversight can also result in ineffective waste management solutions, potentially exacerbating plastic pollution rather than providing a viable, eco-friendly alternative to traditional plastics.

Opportunity:

Advancements in oxo-biodegradable technology

Advancements in oxo-biodegradable technology in the market focus on improving the degradation rate of plastics in the environment. These innovations incorporate metal-based additives that accelerate the breakdown of plastic, promoting faster decomposition when exposed to sunlight, heat, or oxygen. This technology aims to reduce plastic waste, offering a more sustainable alternative to traditional plastics while maintaining strength and durability for packaging applications in various industries.

Threat:

Concerns regarding biodegradation process

Concerns regarding the biodegradation process in the market stem from uncertainties about how effectively these plastics break down in real-world environmental conditions. In some cases, they may degrade more slowly or incompletely, leaving microplastics behind, which could worsen pollution. Additionally, inconsistent degradation rates depending on factors like temperature and UV exposure may undermine the technology's intended environmental benefits, leading to skepticism among consumers and regulators about its sustainability.

Covid-19 Impact:

The COVID-19 pandemic significantly impacted the market by disrupting supply chains and shifting consumer behavior. Increased demand for single-use plastics in medical and food packaging, due to health and safety concerns, led to a rise in plastic waste. Simultaneously, economic challenges slowed investments in sustainable packaging alternatives. However, the growing focus on hygiene and environmental sustainability post-pandemic has driven renewed interest in eco-friendly solutions like oxo-biodegradable plastics.

The bags segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

The bags segment is expected to account for the largest market share during the projection period due to their ability to break down faster than traditional plastics. These bags are designed with metal additives that promote degradation when exposed to oxygen, heat, or UV light. While offering a more environmentally friendly alternative to conventional plastic bags, they still maintain durability and functionality, making them a preferred choice for retailers, food packaging, and waste management solutions.

The food & beverage segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

The food & beverage segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the extrapolated period due to their potential to reduce environmental impact. These plastics offer an eco-friendly alternative for packaging products like snacks, beverages, and ready-to-eat meals. The enhanced biodegradation properties help mitigate long-term plastic pollution, while maintaining the durability and freshness required for food safety. This shift aligns with growing consumer demand for sustainable packaging solutions.

Region with largest share:

North America region is estimated to account for the largest market share during the forecast period driven by increasing environmental awareness and stricter regulations on plastic waste. Companies in the region are adopting oxo-biodegradable plastics to reduce their carbon footprint and comply with sustainability goals. With rising demand from industries like food and beverage, retail, and consumer goods, it is becoming a key market for eco-friendly packaging solutions, despite challenges related to cost and certification standards.

Region with highest CAGR:

Asia Pacific is expected to register the highest growth rate over the forecast period. Governments and consumers are increasingly focused on the environmental impact of plastic waste, pushing for alternatives like oxo-biodegradable plastics. Furthermore, Industries such as food and beverage, consumer goods, and retail are demanding more sustainable packaging solutions. Oxo-biodegradable plastics offer a practical alternative to conventional plastics, helping companies meet their sustainability goals.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players in Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging market include Plastipak Packaging, AEP Industries Inc., Berry Global, Inc., Sealed Air Corporation, SABIC, Dow Chemical Company, Green Dot Bioplastics, Ecovative Design, Veolia North America, Tetra Pak, Mondi Group, ExxonMobil Chemical, Skymark Packaging, Futamura Chemical Co., Ltd. and Teijin Limited.

Key Developments:

In October 2024, ExxonMobil launched its new Signature Polymers portfolio, which includes a fully recyclable thermoformed packaging solution made with 95% polyethylene (PE) content. This packaging features high oxygen barrier properties and is designed for hot fill and aseptic applications, aligning with modern sustainability goals while minimizing material usage to enhance recyclability.

In September 2024, Berry Global announced a partnership with Mondelez International and LyondellBasell to incorporate 50% ISCC PLUS-certified circular plastic into packaging for Triscuit Crackers. This initiative aims to divert over one million pounds of plastic waste from landfills annually, aligning with the companies' sustainability goals.

Product Types Covered:

  • Bags
  • Films
  • Containers and Boxes
  • Bottles
  • Trays and Cups
  • Labels and Tags
  • Other Product Types

Material Types Covered:

  • Polyethylene (PE)
  • Polypropylene (PP)
  • Polystyrene (PS)
  • Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
  • Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
  • Other Material Types

Applications Covered:

  • Frozen Food Packaging
  • Syringe Packaging
  • Electronics Packaging
  • Shipping Wraps
  • Industrial Liners
  • Mulch Films
  • Other Applications

End Users Covered:

  • Pharmaceutical
  • Cosmetics and Personal Care
  • Industrial
  • Agricultural
  • Food & Beverage
  • Retail & Consumer Goods
  • Other End Users

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2022, 2023, 2024, 2026, and 2030
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 Product Analysis
  • 3.7 Application Analysis
  • 3.8 End User Analysis
  • 3.9 Emerging Markets
  • 3.10 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market, By Product Type

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Bags
  • 5.3 Films
  • 5.4 Containers and Boxes
  • 5.5 Bottles
  • 5.6 Trays and Cups
  • 5.7 Labels and Tags
  • 5.8 Other Product Types

6 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market, By Material Type

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Polyethylene (PE)
  • 6.3 Polypropylene (PP)
  • 6.4 Polystyrene (PS)
  • 6.5 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
  • 6.6 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
  • 6.7 Other Material Types

7 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market, By Application

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Frozen Food Packaging
  • 7.3 Syringe Packaging
  • 7.4 Electronics Packaging
  • 7.5 Shipping Wraps
  • 7.6 Industrial Liners
  • 7.7 Mulch Films
  • 7.8 Other Applications

8 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market, By End User

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Pharmaceutical
  • 8.3 Cosmetics and Personal Care
  • 8.4 Industrial
  • 8.5 Agricultural
  • 8.6 Food & Beverage
  • 8.7 Retail & Consumer Goods
  • 8.8 Other End Users

9 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market, By Geography

  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 North America
    • 9.2.1 US
    • 9.2.2 Canada
    • 9.2.3 Mexico
  • 9.3 Europe
    • 9.3.1 Germany
    • 9.3.2 UK
    • 9.3.3 Italy
    • 9.3.4 France
    • 9.3.5 Spain
    • 9.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 9.4 Asia Pacific
    • 9.4.1 Japan
    • 9.4.2 China
    • 9.4.3 India
    • 9.4.4 Australia
    • 9.4.5 New Zealand
    • 9.4.6 South Korea
    • 9.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 9.5 South America
    • 9.5.1 Argentina
    • 9.5.2 Brazil
    • 9.5.3 Chile
    • 9.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 9.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 9.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 9.6.2 UAE
    • 9.6.3 Qatar
    • 9.6.4 South Africa
    • 9.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

10 Key Developments

  • 10.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 10.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 10.3 New Product Launch
  • 10.4 Expansions
  • 10.5 Other Key Strategies

11 Company Profiling

  • 11.1 Plastipak Packaging
  • 11.2 AEP Industries Inc.
  • 11.3 Berry Global, Inc.
  • 11.4 Sealed Air Corporation
  • 11.5 SABIC
  • 11.6 Dow Chemical Company
  • 11.7 Green Dot Bioplastics
  • 11.8 Ecovative Design
  • 11.9 Veolia North America
  • 11.10 Tetra Pak
  • 11.11 Mondi Group
  • 11.12 ExxonMobil Chemical
  • 11.13 Skymark Packaging
  • 11.14 Futamura Chemical Co., Ltd.
  • 11.15 Teijin Limited

List of Tables

  • Table 1 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Region (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 2 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Product Type (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 3 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Bags (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 4 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Films (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 5 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Containers and Boxes (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 6 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Bottles (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 7 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Trays and Cups (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 8 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Labels and Tags (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 9 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Other Product Types (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 10 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Material Type (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 11 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Polyethylene (PE) (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 12 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Polypropylene (PP) (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 13 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Polystyrene (PS) (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 14 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 15 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 16 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Other Material Types (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 17 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Application (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 18 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Frozen Food Packaging (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 19 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Syringe Packaging (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 20 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Electronics Packaging (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 21 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Shipping Wraps (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 22 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Industrial Liners (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 23 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Mulch Films (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 24 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Other Applications (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 25 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By End User (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 26 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Pharmaceutical (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 27 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Cosmetics and Personal Care (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 28 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Industrial (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 29 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Agricultural (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 30 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Food & Beverage (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 31 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Retail & Consumer Goods (2022-2030) ($MN)
  • Table 32 Global Oxo-Biodegradable Plastic Packaging Market Outlook, By Other End Users (2022-2030) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.