查看购物车
  • Traditional Chinese
  • English
  • Japanese
封面
市场调查报告书
商品编码
1803120

全球软性电子产品材料市场：预测（至 2032 年）—按材料、应用、最终用户和地区分析

Flexible Electronics Materials Market Forecasts to 2032 - Global Analysis By Material (Conductors, Substrates, Dielectric Materials and Encapsulation Materials), Application, End User and By Geography
出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 200+ Pages | 商品交期: 2-3个工作天内

价格

根据 Stratistics MRC 的数据，全球软性电子产品材料市场预计在 2025 年达到 434.4 亿美元，到 2032 年将达到 847.1 亿美元，预测期内的复合年增长率为 10.01%。

软性电子产品材料是指一类先进材料，旨在开发轻质、可弯曲、可拉伸且适应性强的电子设备，这些设备可在不影响性能的情况下塑造成各种形状。这些材料包括导电聚合物、金属箔、奈米材料、软式电路板（例如塑胶）和有机半导体。这些材料能够将电子电路整合到柔性表面上，从而推动穿戴式装置、可折迭显示器、医疗感测器和能源储存解决方案的创新。

对轻便和便携设备的需求不断增加

消费者对轻薄便携电子产品的偏好，促使製造商采用柔性、轻薄且耐用的材料。这些材料助力可弯曲显示器、可折迭智慧型手机和穿戴式装置的开发。这一趋势也推动了医疗感测器、智慧纺织品和物联网应用领域的创新。柔性电子产品在不牺牲性能的情况下减轻了重量，满足了现代移动出行的需求。这种日益普及的应用持续拓展了多个产业的市场机会。

耐久性和可靠性问题

柔性材料在反覆弯曲或拉伸时，通常会面临开裂、分层和导电性丧失等挑战。这些弱点限制了其在医疗设备、航太和汽车电子等高性能应用中的普及。製造商难以满足行业稳定性标准，这降低了最终用户的信心。频繁的更换和性能不一致增加了企业和消费者的成本。因此，这些挑战延缓了大规模商业化进程，并限制了市场成长。

政府支持与研发投入

发展倡议和优惠政策鼓励企业开发轻量、耐用且节能的材料。官民合作关係加速了商业化进程，并降低了高昂开发成本的风险。持续的研发投入带来了材料性能的突破，使其在医疗、消费性电子和汽车领域拥有广泛的应用前景。政府支持的研究计画也促进了永续和环保材料的开发。总而言之，这些努力正在建立一个强大的生态系统，促进市场成长和竞争力提升。

标准化有限

制定一致的测试和认证程序非常困难，导致最终用户信心丧失。缺乏统一标准导致材料和设备之间出现相容性问题，从而减缓了大规模采用。由于产业在实施过程中面临重大风险和不确定性，大规模采用仍然有限。企业被迫依赖专有解决方案，这增加了生产成本。

COVID-19的影响

新冠疫情对软性电子产品材料市场产生了多方面的影响。供应链中断和工厂停工最初导致消费性电子、汽车和医疗产业的生产放缓，并推迟了产品发布。非必需电子产品需求的减少进一步抑制了成长。然而，这场危机也加速了数位装置、穿戴式装置和医疗感测器的普及，为柔性材料在健康监测和远端医疗的应用带来了新的机会。整体而言，疫情再形成了需求模式，凸显了市场韧性和创新的重要性。

预计预测期内导体部分将成为最大的部分

预计在预测期内，电导体领域将占据最大的市场占有率，因为它能够在显示器、感测器和穿戴式装置等柔性设备中实现高效的电气连接。奈米银线、石墨烯和导电聚合物高导电性材料能够在保持柔性的同时提升设备性能。它们的弯曲、折迭和拉伸特性支援可折迭智慧型手机和智慧纺织品的创新。对轻量化、节能和紧凑型电子产品的需求日益增长，进一步推动了导电材料的普及。

预计能源储存领域在预测期内将实现最高复合年增长率

预计能源储存领域将在预测期内实现最高成长率，这得益于先进电池和超级电容对轻质、薄型和柔性材料的需求。穿戴式装置、软性显示器和可携式电子产品的日益普及，推动了对高效能、可弯曲能源储存解决方案的需求。柔性材料能够提高下一代储能係统的能量密度、耐用性和设计适应性。电动车和可再生能源的兴起将进一步推动柔性能源储存技术的创新。总体而言，该领域正在透过提高柔性电子产品的性能、多功能性和应用范围来加速市场成长。

占比最大的地区：

预计亚太地区将在预测期内占据最大的市场占有率，这得益于家用电子电器、穿戴式装置的进步以及製造业基础设施的大量投资。快速的都市化以及半导体和显示面板行业的蓬勃发展正在推动柔性电子材料的普及。中国、韩国和日本等国家正在推动柔性显示器、感测器和光伏技术的创新。政府对技术应用和研究合作的支持正在进一步增强市场。总体而言，亚太地区将继续成为软性电子产品材料生产、创新和整合的中心。

复合年增长率最高的地区：

预计北美将在预测期内实现最高的复合年增长率，这得益于其强劲的研发活动以及医疗、汽车和航太行业的日益普及。大学和主要企业在研发方面的大力投入，正在推动导电油墨、软式电路板和聚合物等先进材料的开发。该地区正大力关注医疗穿戴式装置、柔性感测器和国防级应用，这些应用对可靠性和耐用性至关重要。需求的驱动因素包括早期采用趋势、消费者对下一代设备的兴趣以及对永续性的关注。

免费客製化服务

此报告的订阅者可以从以下免费自订选项中选择一项：

  • 公司简介
    • 对最多三家其他公司进行全面分析
    • 主要企业的SWOT分析（最多3家公司）
  • 区域分类
    • 根据客户兴趣对主要国家进行的市场估计、预测和复合年增长率（註：基于可行性检查）
  • 竞争基准化分析
    • 根据产品系列、地理分布和策略联盟对主要企业基准化分析

目录

第一章执行摘要

第 2 章 简介

  • 概述
  • 相关利益者
  • 分析范围
  • 分析方法
    • 资料探勘
    • 数据分析
    • 数据检验
    • 分析方法
  • 分析材料
    • 主要研究资料
    • 二手研究资讯来源
    • 先决条件

第三章市场走势分析

  • 驱动程式
  • 抑制因素
  • 市场机会
  • 威胁
  • 应用分析
  • 最终用户分析
  • 新兴市场
  • COVID-19的感染疾病

第四章 波特五力分析

  • 供应商的议价能力
  • 买方议价能力
  • 替代产品的威胁
  • 新参与企业的威胁
  • 企业之间的竞争

5. 全球软性电子产品材料市场（按材料）

  • 导体
    • 石墨烯
    • 奈米银线
    • 铜墨
  • 基板
    • 塑胶基板
    • 纸基板
    • 金属箔基板
  • 介电材料
    • 聚酰亚胺
    • 聚对苯二甲酸乙二酯
    • Polyethylene Naphthalate
  • 封装材料

6. 全球软性电子产品材料市场（按应用）

  • 展示
  • 照明
  • 太阳能发电
  • 能源储存
  • 感应器
  • 其他用途

7. 全球软性电子产品材料市场（依最终用户）

  • 家电
  • 医疗及医疗设备
  • 车
  • 航太/国防
  • 能源与电力
  • 工业应用
  • 包装和物流
  • 其他最终用户

8. 全球软性电子产品材料市场（按地区）

  • 北美洲
    • 美国
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 欧洲
    • 德国
    • 英国
    • 义大利
    • 法国
    • 西班牙
    • 其他欧洲国家
  • 亚太地区
    • 日本
    • 中国
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 纽西兰
    • 韩国
    • 其他亚太地区
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 其他南美
  • 中东和非洲
    • 沙乌地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公国
    • 卡达
    • 南非
    • 其他中东和非洲地区

第九章：主要趋势

  • 合约、商业伙伴关係和合资企业
  • 企业合併与收购（M&A）
  • 新产品发布
  • 业务扩展
  • 其他关键策略

第十章：企业概况

  • LG Chem
  • Samsung SDI
  • BASF SE
  • DuPont de Nemours, Inc.
  • 3M Company
  • Henkel AG & Co. KGaA
  • Arkema SA
  • Solvay SA
  • Covestro AG
  • Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd.
  • Toray Industries, Inc.
  • Mitsubishi Chemical Group Corporation
  • Hitachi Chemical Co., Ltd.
  • Heraeus Holding GmbH
  • Eastman Chemical Company
  • Panasonic Corporation
  • Taiyo Ink Mfg. Co., Ltd.
Product Code: SMRC30645

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market is accounted for $43.44 billion in 2025 and is expected to reach $84.71 billion by 2032 growing at a CAGR of 10.01% during the forecast period. Flexible electronics materials refer to a class of advanced materials designed to enable the development of electronic devices that are lightweight, bendable, stretchable, and adaptable to various shapes without compromising performance. These materials include conductive polymers, metal foils, nanomaterials, flexible substrates such as plastics, and organic semiconductors. They allow integration of electronic circuits into flexible surfaces, enabling innovations in wearable devices, foldable displays, medical sensors, and energy storage solutions.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Growing demand for lightweight and portable devices

Consumers prefer sleek, compact gadgets that are easy to carry, pushing manufacturers to adopt flexible, thin, and durable materials. These materials enable the development of bendable displays, foldable smartphones, and wearable devices. The trend also supports innovations in medical sensors, smart textiles, and IoT applications. By reducing weight without compromising performance, flexible electronics meet modern mobility needs. This rising adoption continues to expand market opportunities across multiple industries.

Restraint:

Durability and reliability issues

Flexible materials often face challenges such as cracking, delamination, or loss of conductivity when repeatedly bent or stretched. These weaknesses limit their adoption in high-performance applications like medical devices, aerospace, and automotive electronics. Manufacturers struggle to meet industry standards for stability, which reduces confidence among end users. Frequent replacements and performance inconsistencies increase costs for businesses and consumers. As a result, these challenges slow down large-scale commercialization and restrict market growth.

Opportunity:

Government support and R&D investments

Funding initiatives and favourable policies encourage companies to develop lightweight, durable, and energy-efficient materials. Public-private partnerships accelerate commercialization and reduce the risks associated with high development costs. Continuous R&D investments lead to breakthroughs in material properties, enabling wider applications in healthcare, consumer electronics, and automotive sectors. Government-backed research programs also promote sustainable and eco-friendly material development. Overall, these efforts create a strong ecosystem that drives growth and competitiveness in the market.

Threat:

Limited standardization

Developing consistent testing and certification procedures becomes challenging, leading to reduced confidence among end users. The absence of unified standards results in compatibility problems between materials and devices, delaying large-scale adoption. Mass adoption remains limited as industries encounter greater risks and uncertainties during implementation. Production expenses rise as companies are forced to rely on proprietary solutions.

Covid-19 Impact

The Covid-19 pandemic had a mixed impact on the flexible electronics materials market. Supply chain disruptions and factory shutdowns initially slowed production, delaying product launches across consumer electronics, automotive, and healthcare sectors. Reduced demand for non-essential electronics further constrained growth. However, the crisis also accelerated the adoption of digital devices, wearables, and medical sensors, driving new opportunities for flexible materials in health monitoring and remote care. Overall, the pandemic reshaped demand patterns, highlighting the importance of resilience and innovation in the market.

The conductor's segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

The conductor's segment is expected to account for the largest market share during the forecast period by enabling efficient electrical connectivity in flexible devices such as displays, sensors, and wearables. High conductivity materials like silver nanowires, graphene, and conductive polymers enhance device performance while maintaining flexibility. Their adaptability to bending, folding, and stretching supports innovations in foldable smartphones and smart textiles. Growing demand for lightweight, energy-efficient, and compact electronic products further boosts the adoption of conductive materials.

The energy storage segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

Over the forecast period, the energy storage segment is predicted to witness the highest growth rate by driving demand for lightweight, thin, and flexible materials used in advanced batteries and supercapacitors. Growing adoption of wearable devices, flexible displays, and portable electronics increases the need for efficient, bendable energy storage solutions. Flexible materials enable improved energy density, durability, and design adaptability in next-generation storage systems. The rise of electric vehicles and renewable energy integration further boosts innovations in flexible energy storage technologies. Overall, the segment accelerates market growth by enhancing performance, versatility, and application scope of flexible electronics.

Region with largest share:

During the forecast period, the Asia Pacific region is expected to hold the largest market share due to advancements in consumer electronics, wearable devices, and large-scale investments in manufacturing infrastructure. Rapid urbanization and strong presence of semiconductor and display panel industries are fueling adoption. Countries like China, South Korea, and Japan are driving innovation in flexible displays, sensors, and photovoltaic technologies. Government support for technology adoption and research collaborations further strengthen the market. Overall, Asia Pacific remains a hub for production, innovation, and integration of flexible electronics materials.

Region with highest CAGR:

Over the forecast period, the North America region is anticipated to exhibit the highest CAGR, due to high research activities, and growing adoption across healthcare, automotive, and aerospace industries. Strong R&D investments by universities and leading companies foster advanced material development, including conductive inks, flexible substrates, and polymers. The region focuses on medical wearables, flexible sensors, and defense-grade applications, emphasizing reliability and durability. Demand is influenced by early adoption trends, consumer interest in next-generation devices, and emphasis on sustainability.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players profiled in the Flexible Electronics Materials Market include LG Chem, Samsung SDI, BASF SE, DuPont de Nemours, Inc., 3M Company, Henkel AG & Co. KGaA, Arkema S.A., Solvay S.A., Covestro AG, Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd., Toray Industries, Inc., Mitsubishi Chemical Group Corporation, Hitachi Chemical Co., Ltd., , Heraeus Holding GmbH, Eastman Chemical Company, Panasonic Corporation and Taiyo Ink Mfg. Co., Ltd.

Key Developments:

In December 2024, LG Chem extended its joint development agreement with Gevo Inc., a U.S.-based renewable chemicals company. The collaboration focuses on commercializing Ethanol-to-Olefins (ETO) technology, which enables the production of sustainable feedstocks for advanced polymers.

In August 2024, Samsung SDI finalized a major joint venture agreement with General Motors (GM) to build a new EV battery manufacturing plant in New Carlisle, Indiana, USA. While the primary focus is electric vehicles, the technologies involved particularly prismatic NCA-based batteries are highly relevant to flexible electronics due to their compact form factor, high energy density, and safety features.

Materials Covered:

  • Conductors
  • Substrates
  • Dielectric Materials
  • Encapsulation Materials

Applications Covered:

  • Displays
  • Lighting
  • Photovoltaics
  • Energy Storage
  • Sensors
  • Other Applications

End Users Covered:

  • Consumer Electronics
  • Healthcare & Medical Devices
  • Automotive
  • Aerospace & Defense
  • Energy & Power
  • Industrial Applications
  • Packaging & Logistics
  • Other End Users

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2024, 2025, 2026, 2028, and 2032
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 Application Analysis
  • 3.7 End User Analysis
  • 3.8 Emerging Markets
  • 3.9 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market, By Material

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Conductors
    • 5.2.1 Graphene
    • 5.2.2 Silver Nanowires
    • 5.2.3 Copper Inks
  • 5.3 Substrates
    • 5.3.1 Plastic Substrates
    • 5.3.2 Paper Substrates
    • 5.3.3 Metal Foil Substrates
  • 5.4 Dielectric Materials
    • 5.4.1 Polyimide
    • 5.4.2 Polyethylene Terephthalate
    • 5.4.3 Polyethylene Naphthalate
  • 5.5 Encapsulation Materials

6 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market, By Application

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Displays
  • 6.3 Lighting
  • 6.4 Photovoltaics
  • 6.5 Energy Storage
  • 6.6 Sensors
  • 6.7 Other Applications

7 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market, By End User

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Consumer Electronics
  • 7.3 Healthcare & Medical Devices
  • 7.4 Automotive
  • 7.5 Aerospace & Defense
  • 7.6 Energy & Power
  • 7.7 Industrial Applications
  • 7.8 Packaging & Logistics
  • 7.9 Other End Users

8 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market, By Geography

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 North America
    • 8.2.1 US
    • 8.2.2 Canada
    • 8.2.3 Mexico
  • 8.3 Europe
    • 8.3.1 Germany
    • 8.3.2 UK
    • 8.3.3 Italy
    • 8.3.4 France
    • 8.3.5 Spain
    • 8.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 8.4 Asia Pacific
    • 8.4.1 Japan
    • 8.4.2 China
    • 8.4.3 India
    • 8.4.4 Australia
    • 8.4.5 New Zealand
    • 8.4.6 South Korea
    • 8.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 8.5 South America
    • 8.5.1 Argentina
    • 8.5.2 Brazil
    • 8.5.3 Chile
    • 8.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 8.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 8.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 8.6.2 UAE
    • 8.6.3 Qatar
    • 8.6.4 South Africa
    • 8.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

9 Key Developments

  • 9.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 9.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 9.3 New Product Launch
  • 9.4 Expansions
  • 9.5 Other Key Strategies

10 Company Profiling

  • 10.1 LG Chem
  • 10.2 Samsung SDI
  • 10.3 BASF SE
  • 10.4 DuPont de Nemours, Inc.
  • 10.5 3M Company
  • 10.6 Henkel AG & Co. KGaA
  • 10.7 Arkema S.A.
  • 10.8 Solvay S.A.
  • 10.9 Covestro AG
  • 10.10 Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd.
  • 10.11 Toray Industries, Inc.
  • 10.12 Mitsubishi Chemical Group Corporation
  • 10.13 Hitachi Chemical Co., Ltd.
  • 10.14 Heraeus Holding GmbH
  • 10.15 Eastman Chemical Company
  • 10.16 Panasonic Corporation
  • 10.17 Taiyo Ink Mfg. Co., Ltd.

List of Tables

  • Table 1 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Region (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 2 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Material (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 3 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Conductors (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 4 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Graphene (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 5 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Silver Nanowires (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 6 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Copper Inks (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 7 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Substrates (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 8 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Plastic Substrates (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 9 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Paper Substrates (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 10 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Metal Foil Substrates (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 11 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Dielectric Materials (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 12 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Polyimide (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 13 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Polyethylene Terephthalate (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 14 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Polyethylene Naphthalate (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 15 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Encapsulation Materials (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 16 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Application (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 17 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Displays (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 18 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Lighting (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 19 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Photovoltaics (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 20 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Energy Storage (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 21 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Sensors (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 22 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Other Applications (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 23 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By End User (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 24 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Consumer Electronics (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 25 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Healthcare & Medical Devices (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 26 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Automotive (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 27 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Aerospace & Defense (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 28 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Energy & Power (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 29 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Industrial Applications (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 30 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Packaging & Logistics (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 31 Global Flexible Electronics Materials Market Outlook, By Other End Users (2024-2032) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.