查看购物车
  • Traditional Chinese
  • English
  • Japanese
  • Korean
封面
市场调查报告书
商品编码
1871901

全球苛性钠市场预测至2032年：依生产流程、形态、等级、通路、应用及地区分類的分析

Caustic Soda Market Forecasts to 2032 - Global Analysis By Production Process (Membrane Cell Process, Diaphragm Cell Process, and Mercury Cell Process), Form, Grade, Distribution Channel, Application and By Geography
出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 200+ Pages | 商品交期: 2-3个工作天内

价格

根据 Stratistics MRC 预测，2025 年全球苛性钠市场规模预计将达到 505.7 亿美元，到 2032 年将达到 796.3 亿美元，预测期内复合年增长率为 6.7%。

苛性钠（氢氧化钠，NaOH）是一种强腐蚀性的白色固体化合物，广泛应用于各种工业生产过程中。它在造纸、纺织、清洁剂和肥皂的生产中用作强碱。此外，它在水处理、炼油和化学品製造中也发挥着重要作用。由于其能够溶解油脂和蛋白质，因此可用于工业环境中的清洁和脱脂。

根据欧洲汽车製造商协会（ACEA）的数据，2020 年 1 月和 2 月欧盟新车销量比去年同期下降了 7.4%。

水处理应用领域的成长

全球对清洁安全水的需求日益增长，推动了工业和市政水处理系统中苛性钠用量的显着增加。烧碱在pH调节、化学沉淀和重金属去除等过程中发挥关键作用。在日益严格的环境法规的推动下，各行业越来越多地采用先进的苛性钠处理技术。智慧加药系统和即时水质监测技术的创新正在提高处理效率。开发中国家正在投资建造大规模海水淡化和污水回用基础设施，进一步推动了对烧碱的需求。随着永续水资源管理成为全球优先事项，苛性钠仍然是这些努力中的关键化学物质。

能源密集型製造工艺

能源价格波动和对碳排放的担忧迫使製造商寻求更环保的替代方案。膜电解槽技术虽然能提高效率，但需要大量的资本投入才能实施。日益严格的能源使用和排放监管迫使生产商投资干净科技。小规模业者往往缺乏升级设备的资金，这限制了它们在以永续发展为永续性的市场中的竞争力。这些与能源相关的限制因素减缓了产能扩张，并对长期盈利构成挑战。

对高纯度等级产品的需求不断增长

半导体、製药和食品加工等行业对超高纯度苛性钠的需求正在迅速增长。这些行业对品质标准要求严格，迫使製造商投资于离子交换和膜分离等先进的纯化技术。电子设备的微型化和製药生产流程的日益复杂化推动了对高纯度化学品的需求。监管趋势也在推动高纯度产品的应用，以确保产品安全和合规性。新兴经济体正在扩大产能，以满足国际纯度标准。

替代产品的供应情况

氢氧化钾和碱灰等替代化学品的出现，对某些应用领域中苛性钠的主导地位构成了挑战。这些替代品因其腐蚀性较小、成本优势或环境效益而日益普及。技术进步正推动更环保、更安全的替代品的开发，尤其是在清洁、纺织和食品加工领域。消费者对环保产品的日益青睐，加速了可生物降解和酵素解决方案的转变。一些行业也在寻求重新设计製程，以最大限度地减少或消除对苛性钠的需求。

新冠疫情的感染疾病：

疫情对苛性钠供应链造成了严重衝击，封锁措施导致生产停滞和延迟。纺织、建筑等产业的需求骤降，影响了整体消费量。然而，由于苛性钠是生产肥皂和消毒剂的必需原料，卫生用品和消毒剂的需求增加在一定程度上抵消了疫情带来的衝击。监管机构已推出临时性宽鬆政策，以确保关键化学品的供应不间断。在后疫情时代，该产业正致力于建立更具韧性的供应链，并加速向更节能的生产模式转型。

预计在预测期内，膜电解池製程领域将占据最大的市场份额。

在预测期内，膜电解製程预计将占据最大的市场份额，这主要得益于其卓越的环境性能和能源效率。与汞法和隔膜法不同，膜苛性钠，同时最大限度地减少废弃物和排放。膜材料的持续研发提高了薄膜的耐久性并降低了维护成本。监管机构对干净科技的支持正在推动对膜电解设施的新投资。模组化膜系统因其扩充性和操作灵活性而日益普及。

预计在预测期内，水处理领域将呈现最高的复合年增长率。

受水资源短缺和污染问题日益严峻的推动，预计水处理产业在预测期内将实现最高成长率。苛性钠是市政和工业设施中和、絮凝和污泥处理过程的关键原料。政府排放严格的排放标准正在推动水处理基础设施的升级改造。人工智慧驱动的加药技术和分散式处理单元等技术创新正在拓展苛性钠的应用范围。闭式循环水系统和工业用水回用技术的日益普及也进一步推动了市场需求。

占比最大的地区：

预计亚太地区将在预测期内占据最大的市场份额，这主要得益于快速的工业化和基础设施扩张。中国、印度和印尼等国正大力发展化工、纺织和纸浆造纸等产业，这些产业都是苛性钠的主要消费产业。政府主导的各项措施正在促进国内生产，降低进口依赖。此外，为了符合环保标准，膜电解技术也不断普及。全球企业与本地製造商之间的策略合作正在推动技术应用和市场扩张。

预计年复合成长率最高的地区：

在预测期内，由于大力推进技术创新和永续性，北美预计将实现最高的复合年增长率。美国正对其氯碱基础设施进行现代化改造，采用节能低排放技术。电子、製药和食品业对高纯度产品的需求正在推动区域消费。法规结构也在不断完善，以支持清洁生产方法的快速普及。数位转型，包括预测性维护和流程自动化，正在帮助提高营运效率。

免费客製化服务：

购买此报告的客户可以选择以下免费自订选项之一：

  • 公司概况
    • 对其他市场参与者（最多 3 家公司）进行全面分析
    • 主要参与者（最多3家公司）的SWOT分析
  • 区域细分
    • 根据客户兴趣对主要国家进行市场估算、预测和复合年增长率分析（註：基于可行性检查）
  • 竞争基准化分析
    • 基于产品系列、地域覆盖和策略联盟对主要企业基准化分析

目录

第一章执行摘要

第二章 前言

  • 概述
  • 相关利益者
  • 调查范围
  • 调查方法
    • 资料探勘
    • 数据分析
    • 数据检验
    • 研究途径
  • 研究材料
    • 原始研究资料
    • 次级研究资讯来源
    • 先决条件

第三章 市场趋势分析

  • 介绍
  • 司机
  • 抑制因素
  • 机会
  • 威胁
  • 应用分析
  • 新兴市场
  • 新冠疫情的影响

第四章 波特五力分析

  • 供应商的议价能力
  • 买方的议价能力
  • 替代品的威胁
  • 新进入者的威胁
  • 竞争对手之间的竞争

5. 全球苛性钠市场依生产流程划分

  • 介绍
  • 细胞膜过程
  • 横膈膜细胞突起
  • 汞电池工艺

6. 全球苛性钠市场（按类型划分）

  • 介绍
  • 液态苛性钠
  • 固体苛性钠
  • 苛性钠钠碱液

7. 全球苛性钠市场（依等级划分）

  • 介绍
  • 工业级
  • 试剂级
  • 分析级

8. 全球苛性钠市场按分销管道划分

  • 介绍
  • 直销
  • 分销商/批发商
  • 线上管道

9. 全球苛性钠市场（依应用领域划分）

  • 介绍
  • 纸浆和造纸
  • 纤维
  • 肥皂和清洁剂
  • 水处理
  • 食品加工
  • 有机/无机化学品製造
  • 氧化铝生产
  • 製药
  • 其他应用

第十章 全球苛性钠市场（按地区划分）

  • 介绍
  • 北美洲
    • 美国
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 欧洲
    • 德国
    • 英国
    • 义大利
    • 法国
    • 西班牙
    • 其他欧洲
  • 亚太地区
    • 日本
    • 中国
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 纽西兰
    • 韩国
    • 亚太其他地区
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 其他南美洲国家
  • 中东和非洲
    • 沙乌地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公国
    • 卡达
    • 南非
    • 其他中东和非洲地区

第十一章 重大进展

  • 协议、伙伴关係、合作和合资企业
  • 收购与併购
  • 新产品上市
  • 业务拓展
  • 其他关键策略

第十二章：企业概况

  • Dow Chemical Company
  • Gujarat Alkalies & Chemicals Ltd.
  • Olin Corporation
  • Kemira Oyj
  • Occidental Petroleum Corporation（OxyChem）
  • Tata Chemicals Limited
  • Westlake Corporation
  • Nouryon
  • Formosa Plastics Corporation
  • SABIC
  • INEOS Group
  • Tosoh Corporation
  • Solvay SA
  • Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd.
  • BASF SE
Product Code: SMRC32271

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Caustic Soda Market is accounted for $50.57 billion in 2025 and is expected to reach $79.63 billion by 2032 growing at a CAGR of 6.7% during the forecast period. Caustic soda, also known as sodium hydroxide (NaOH), is a highly corrosive, white, solid chemical compound widely used in various industrial processes. It serves as a strong base in the manufacture of paper, textiles, detergents, and soaps. Additionally, it plays a crucial role in water treatment, petroleum refining, and chemical production. Due to its ability to dissolve fats, oils, and proteins, it is also used for cleaning and degreasing applications in industrial environments.

According to the European Automobile Manufacturers' Association (ACEA), in January and February 2020, the total sales of new vehicles in the European Union were 7.4% lower than those in the same period in 2019.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Growth in water treatment applications

The global push for clean and safe water is significantly boosting the use of caustic soda in both industrial and municipal treatment systems. It plays a vital role in processes like pH regulation, chemical precipitation, and the removal of heavy metals. With stricter environmental norms, industries are increasingly adopting advanced treatment technologies that rely on caustic soda. Innovations in smart dosing systems and real-time water quality monitoring are enhancing treatment efficiency. Developing nations are investing in large-scale desalination and wastewater reuse infrastructure, further driving demand. As sustainable water management becomes a global priority, caustic soda remains a cornerstone chemical in these initiatives.

Restraint:

Energy-intensive production process

Volatile energy prices and carbon emission concerns are putting pressure on manufacturers to seek greener alternatives. Although membrane cell technology offers improved efficiency, its adoption involves high capital expenditure. Regulatory bodies are increasingly scrutinizing energy usage and emissions, compelling producers to invest in cleaner technologies. Smaller players often lack the resources to upgrade, limiting their competitiveness in a sustainability-driven market. These energy-related constraints are slowing down capacity additions and posing challenges to long-term profitability.

Opportunity:

Growing demand for high-purity grades

The demand for ultra-pure caustic soda is growing rapidly in sectors like semiconductors, pharmaceuticals, and food processing. These industries require stringent quality standards, prompting manufacturers to invest in advanced purification techniques such as ion-exchange and membrane separation. The trend toward miniaturization in electronics and precision in drug manufacturing is amplifying the need for contaminant-free chemicals. Regulatory shifts are also encouraging the use of high-purity variants to ensure product safety and compliance. Emerging economies are upgrading their production capabilities to meet international purity benchmarks.

Threat:

Availability of substitutes

The availability of alternative chemicals such as potassium hydroxide and soda ash is challenging caustic soda's dominance in certain applications. These substitutes are gaining favor due to their lower corrosiveness, cost advantages, or environmental benefits. Technological advancements are enabling the development of greener and safer alternatives, especially in cleaning, textiles, and food processing. Consumer preference for eco-friendly products is accelerating the shift toward biodegradable and enzyme-based solutions. Some industries are also exploring process redesigns that minimize or eliminate the need for caustic soda.

Covid-19 Impact:

The pandemic caused significant disruptions in caustic soda supply chains, with lockdowns halting production and delaying shipments. Demand from sectors like textiles and construction dropped sharply, affecting overall consumption. However, increased use in hygiene products and disinfectants provided a partial offset, as caustic soda is essential in soap and sanitizer manufacturing. Regulatory agencies introduced temporary relaxations to ensure uninterrupted supply of essential chemicals. In the post-Covid landscape, the industry is focusing on building resilient supply chains and accelerating the shift to energy-efficient production models.

The membrane cell process segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

The membrane cell process segment is expected to account for the largest market share during the forecast period, due to its superior environmental performance and energy efficiency. Unlike mercury and diaphragm methods, it produces high-purity caustic soda with minimal waste and emissions. Continuous R&D in membrane materials is enhancing durability and reducing maintenance costs. Regulatory support for cleaner technologies is encouraging new investments in membrane-based facilities. Modular membrane systems are gaining popularity for their scalability and operational flexibility.

The water treatment segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

Over the forecast period, the water treatment segment is predicted to witness the highest growth rate, driven by escalating concerns over water scarcity and pollution. Caustic soda is essential in neutralization, coagulation, and sludge treatment processes across municipal and industrial setups. Governments are enforcing stricter discharge norms, prompting upgrades in treatment infrastructure. Technological innovations like AI-driven dosing and decentralized treatment units are expanding the scope of caustic soda applications. The rise of circular water systems and industrial water reuse is further boosting demand.

Region with largest share:

During the forecast period, the Asia Pacific region is expected to hold the largest market share, supported by rapid industrialization and infrastructure expansion. Countries like China, India, and Indonesia are scaling up their chemical, textile, and pulp & paper sectors, which are major consumers of caustic soda. Government-backed initiatives are promoting domestic production and reducing reliance on imports. The region is also witnessing a shift toward membrane cell technology to meet environmental standards. Strategic alliances between global firms and local manufacturers are enhancing technology adoption and market reach.

Region with highest CAGR:

Over the forecast period, the North America region is anticipated to exhibit the highest CAGR, owing to technological innovation and a strong push for sustainability. The U.S. is modernizing its chlor-alkali infrastructure with energy-efficient and low-emission technologies. High-purity demand from electronics, pharmaceuticals, and food sectors is accelerating regional consumption. Regulatory frameworks are evolving to support faster adoption of clean production methods. Digital transformation, including predictive maintenance and process automation, is enhancing operational efficiency.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players in Caustic Soda Market include Dow Chem, Gujarat Al, Olin Corpo, Kemira Oyj, Occidenta, Tata Chem, Westlake, Nouryon, Formosa P, SABIC, INEOS Gro, Tosoh Cor, Solvay SA, Shin-Etsu, and BASF SE.

Key Developments:

In October 2025, Dow and MEGlobal have finalized an agreement for Dow to supply an additional equivalent to 100 KTA of ethylene from its Gulf Coast operations. The ethylene will serve as a key feedstock for MEGlobal's ethylene glycol (EG) manufacturing facility co-located at Dow's and MEGlobal's Oyster Creek site.

In October 2025, SABIC has collaborated with Zuyderland medical center in The Netherlands to help transform medical plastic waste into new contact sensitive packaging materials. In collaboration with converters, Coveris and ACE, and brand owners Artivion and Molnlycke Health Care, the SABIC and its project partners have successfully proven the concept of recycling used medical plastic back into the medical materials stream in two innovative pilot projects.

Production Processes Covered:

  • Membrane Cell Process
  • Diaphragm Cell Process
  • Mercury Cell Process

Forms Covered:

  • Liquid Caustic Soda
  • Solid Caustic Soda
  • Caustic Soda Lye

Grades Covered:

  • Industrial Grade
  • Reagent Grade
  • Analytical Grade

Distribution Channels Covered:

  • Direct Sales
  • Distributors/Wholesalers
  • Online Channels

Applications Covered:

  • Pulp & Paper
  • Textiles
  • Soaps & Detergents
  • Water Treatment
  • Food Processing
  • Organic & Inorganic Chemicals Manufacturing
  • Alumina Production
  • Pharmaceuticals
  • Other Applications

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2024, 2025, 2026, 2028, and 2032
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 Application Analysis
  • 3.7 Emerging Markets
  • 3.8 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Caustic Soda Market, By Production Process

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Membrane Cell Process
  • 5.3 Diaphragm Cell Process
  • 5.4 Mercury Cell Process

6 Global Caustic Soda Market, By Form

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Liquid Caustic Soda
  • 6.3 Solid Caustic Soda
  • 6.4 Caustic Soda Lye

7 Global Caustic Soda Market, By Grade

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Industrial Grade
  • 7.3 Reagent Grade
  • 7.4 Analytical Grade

8 Global Caustic Soda Market, By Distribution Channel

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Direct Sales
  • 8.3 Distributors/Wholesalers
  • 8.4 Online Channels

9 Global Caustic Soda Market, By Application

  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 Pulp & Paper
  • 9.3 Textiles
  • 9.4 Soaps & Detergents
  • 9.5 Water Treatment
  • 9.6 Food Processing
  • 9.7 Organic & Inorganic Chemicals Manufacturing
  • 9.8 Alumina Production
  • 9.9 Pharmaceuticals
  • 9.10 Other Applications

10 Global Caustic Soda Market, By Geography

  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 North America
    • 10.2.1 US
    • 10.2.2 Canada
    • 10.2.3 Mexico
  • 10.3 Europe
    • 10.3.1 Germany
    • 10.3.2 UK
    • 10.3.3 Italy
    • 10.3.4 France
    • 10.3.5 Spain
    • 10.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 10.4 Asia Pacific
    • 10.4.1 Japan
    • 10.4.2 China
    • 10.4.3 India
    • 10.4.4 Australia
    • 10.4.5 New Zealand
    • 10.4.6 South Korea
    • 10.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 10.5 South America
    • 10.5.1 Argentina
    • 10.5.2 Brazil
    • 10.5.3 Chile
    • 10.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 10.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 10.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 10.6.2 UAE
    • 10.6.3 Qatar
    • 10.6.4 South Africa
    • 10.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

11 Key Developments

  • 11.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 11.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 11.3 New Product Launch
  • 11.4 Expansions
  • 11.5 Other Key Strategies

12 Company Profiling

  • 12.1 Dow Chemical Company
  • 12.2 Gujarat Alkalies & Chemicals Ltd.
  • 12.3 Olin Corporation
  • 12.4 Kemira Oyj
  • 12.5 Occidental Petroleum Corporation (OxyChem)
  • 12.6 Tata Chemicals Limited
  • 12.7 Westlake Corporation
  • 12.8 Nouryon
  • 12.9 Formosa Plastics Corporation
  • 12.10 SABIC
  • 12.11 INEOS Group
  • 12.12 Tosoh Corporation
  • 12.13 Solvay SA
  • 12.14 Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd.
  • 12.15 BASF SE

List of Tables

  • Table 1 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Region (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 2 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Production Process (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 3 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Membrane Cell Process (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 4 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Diaphragm Cell Process (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 5 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Mercury Cell Process (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 6 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Form (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 7 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Liquid Caustic Soda (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 8 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Solid Caustic Soda (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 9 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Caustic Soda Lye (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 10 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Grade (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 11 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Industrial Grade (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 12 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Reagent Grade (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 13 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Analytical Grade (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 14 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Distribution Channel (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 15 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Direct Sales (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 16 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Distributors/Wholesalers (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 17 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Online Channels (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 18 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Application (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 19 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Pulp & Paper (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 20 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Textiles (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 21 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Soaps & Detergents (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 22 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Water Treatment (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 23 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Food Processing (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 24 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Organic & Inorganic Chemicals Manufacturing (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 25 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Alumina Production (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 26 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Pharmaceuticals (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 27 Global Caustic Soda Market Outlook, By Other Applications (2024-2032) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.