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市场调查报告书
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1889401

固态电池市场预测至2032年：按电池类型、类别、电解液类型、容量、应用和地区分類的全球分析

Solid-State Battery Market Forecasts to 2032 - Global Analysis By Battery Type, Category, Electrolyte Type, Capacity, Application, and By Geography
出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 | 商品交期: 2-3个工作天内

价格

根据 Stratistics MRC 的一项研究，全球固态电池市场预计在 2025 年达到 18 亿美元，到 2032 年将达到 403 亿美元，预测期内复合年增长率 (CAGR) 为 55.5%。固态电池专注于以固体材料取代液态电解质的先进电池技术，从而提高安全性和能量密度。

此次合作汇集了材料供应商、电池开发人员和系统整合商，目标应用领域包括电动车、家用电器和固定式储能係统。其优点包括降低火灾风险、延长循环寿命、实现快速充电以及提升电动车续航里程，并随着技术从试点阶段迈向商业化规模，为更安全、更紧凑的储能解决方案提供支援。

高能量密度潜力，可延长电动车的续航里程

固态电池的主要驱动力在于远高于传统锂离子电池的能量密度。这项固有特性使得电池组能够在更小、更轻的体积内储存更多能量，从而显着提升电动车的续航里程。解决里程焦虑是电动车普及的一大障碍，而固态电池技术恰好能够有效应对这项挑战。这使得电动车对消费者更具吸引力，并有助于汽车製造商实现全球严格的排放气体目标。性能的飞跃正在汽车产业催生巨大的市场需求。

可扩展性和大规模生产的技术挑战

市场成长的主要障碍在于扩大生产规模和实现经济高效的大规模生产仍面临持续的技术挑战。其他技术障碍仍然存在，例如阳极-电解质界面处锂枝晶的形成以及室温下离子电导率低。这些复杂问题需要专门的生产设备和高纯度、通常昂贵的原料。因此，将实验室的成功转化为商业性可行的吉瓦级生产需要投入大量成本并克服许多技术挑战，减缓了市场接受度。

与快速充电基础设施的整合

固态电池与新一代快速充电基础设施的无缝集成，是新兴的关键机会。与液态电解质电池相比，固态电池具有卓越的热稳定性和对快速充电电流的高耐受性，使其在严苛的充电条件下更安全耐用。这种综效有望显着缩短充电时间，甚至达到传统汽车加油的速度。此类发展将带来颠覆性的变革，推动消费者接受固态电池，充电网路营运商和能源公司正积极寻求面向未来的解决方案。

竞争性电池化学技术的快速创新

市场正面临来自竞争电池化学技术持续创新和渐进式​​改进的实际威胁，尤其是锂硅锂离子电池和采用液态电解质的锂金属锂离子电池等先进锂离子电池。此外，这些成熟技术受益于成熟的大规模供应链和持续的成本降低。固态电池商业化进程的延迟尤其有可能缩小其在固态电池密度和安全性方面的性能差距，从而使其市场份额被蚕食。这种对研发资金和市场关注的竞争构成了重大的策略威胁。

新冠疫情的感染疾病：

新冠疫情初期，由于全球封锁和工厂关闭导致供应链严重受阻，研发工作被迫延缓，固态电池市场受到衝击。然而，这场危机也扮演了催化剂的作用，凸显了韧性供应链和清洁能源技术的战略重要性。中期来看，各国政府和企业已加速推动电气化和永续投资，将其作为经济復苏计画的一部分。这促使人们重新关注先进电池的研发，包括固态电池平台。

预计在预测期内，二次电池细分市场将占据最大的市场份额。

由于电动车产业对可充电（二次）电池系统有着巨大的需求，预计在预测期内，二次电池领域将占据最大的市场份额。此外，家用电器和电网储能应用本身也是重要的市场，它们同样依赖可充电电池。目前，研发重点和投资正集中在开发耐用、长寿命的二次固态电池，这巩固了其在可预见的未来作为主要收入来源的地位。

预计在预测期内，氧化物基固体电解质细分市场将呈现最高的复合年增长率。

由于氧化物基固体电解质可能存在脆性，但薄膜製备技术和复合电解质的进步正在缓解这些挑战。此外，其宽广的电化学窗口使其与高压正极材料具有良好的兼容性，这对于实现高能量密度并促进其快速应用至关重要。

占比最大的地区：

亚太地区预计将在预测期内占据最大的市场份额，这主要得益于全球最大的电池製造商（主要集中在中国、日本和韩国）以及其强大的电动车供应链。政府的大力支持、国家对电池技术的大量投资，以及主要汽车製造商积极研发固态电池，共同建构了一个有利于生产和早期应用的强大生态系统，巩固了该地区在销售和价值方面的市场主导地位。

复合年增长率最高的地区：

预计亚太地区在预测期内将实现最高的复合年增长率。这主要得益于各国积极的策略，尤其是日本和韩国，旨在十年内实现固态电池的商业化生产。中国也大力投资电动车和电池产业。同时，全部区域的研发活动和伙伴关係也不断扩展。这些因素使亚太地区成为创新和快速成长的热点地区，并使其处于市场成长的前沿。

免费客製化服务：

购买此报告的客户可以选择以下免费自订选项之一：

  • 公司概况
    • 对其他市场公司（最多 3 家公司）进行全面分析
    • 对主要企业进行SWOT分析（最多3家公司）
  • 区域细分
    • 根据客户要求，提供主要国家的市场估算和预测以及复合年增长率（註：可行性需确认）。
  • 竞争基准化分析
    • 根据主要企业的产品系列、地理覆盖范围和策略联盟基准化分析

目录

第一章执行摘要

第二章 前言

  • 摘要
  • 相关利益者
  • 调查范围
  • 调查方法
  • 研究材料

第三章 市场趋势分析

  • 司机
  • 抑制因素
  • 机会
  • 威胁
  • 应用分析
  • 新兴市场
  • 新冠疫情的感染疾病

第四章 波特五力分析

  • 供应商的议价能力
  • 买方的议价能力
  • 替代品的威胁
  • 新进入者的威胁
  • 竞争对手之间的竞争

第五章 全球固态电池市场（以电池类型划分）

  • 薄膜固态电池
  • 柔性固态电池
  • 多层/堆迭式固态电池
  • 其他新兴的固态电池类型

第六章 全球固态电池市场（依类别划分）

  • 一次电池（不可充电）
  • 备用电池（可充电）

7. 全球固态电池市场（以电解液类型划分）

  • 聚合物固体电解质
  • 硫化物固体电解质
  • 氧化物固体电解质
  • 其他新兴电解质

第八章 全球固态电池市场（依容量划分）

  • 小于20毫安培时
  • 20mAh～500mAh
  • 超过500毫安培时

9. 全球固态电池市场（按应用划分）

  • 家用电器和可携式电子设备
  • 电动车
  • 能源储存系统
  • 医疗设备
  • 航太/国防
  • 产业
  • 机器人技术
  • 其他用途

第十章 全球固态电池市场（按地区划分）

  • 北美洲
    • 美国
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 欧洲
    • 德国
    • 英国
    • 义大利
    • 法国
    • 西班牙
    • 其他欧洲
  • 亚太地区
    • 日本
    • 中国
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 纽西兰
    • 韩国
    • 亚太其他地区
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 南美洲其他地区
  • 中东和非洲
    • 沙乌地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公国
    • 卡达
    • 南非
    • 其他中东和非洲地区

第十一章 重大进展

  • 协议、伙伴关係、合作和合资企业
  • 併购
  • 新产品发布
  • 业务拓展
  • 其他关键策略

第十二章 企业概况

  • QuantumScape Corporation
  • Solid Power, Inc.
  • ProLogium Technology Co., Ltd.
  • Blue Solutions（Bollore Group）
  • Ilika plc
  • Factorial Inc.
  • Samsung SDI Co., Ltd.
  • LG Energy Solution Ltd.
  • Toyota Motor Corporation
  • Nissan Motor Co., Ltd.
  • BYD Co., Ltd.
  • CATL（Contemporary Amperex Technology Co., Limited）
  • Panasonic Holdings Corporation
  • TDK Corporation
  • SK On Co., Ltd.
  • Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd.
  • Ampcera Inc.
  • Ion Storage Systems, Inc.
Product Code: SMRC32807

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Solid-State Battery Market is accounted for $1.8 billion in 2025 and is expected to reach $40.3 billion by 2032, growing at a CAGR of 55.5% during the forecast period. The solid-state battery focuses on advanced batteries that replace liquid electrolytes with solid materials, improving safety and energy density. It involves materials suppliers, cell developers, and integrators targeting electric vehicles, consumer electronics, and stationary storage. Benefits include lower fire risk, longer cycle life, potential for faster charging, and higher range for EVs, supporting safer, more compact energy storage solutions as technology moves from pilot to commercial scale.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Higher energy density potential enabling longer range for electric vehicles

The paramount driver for solid-state batteries is their significantly higher energy density potential compared to conventional lithium-ion cells. This intrinsic property allows for the storage of more energy in a smaller, lighter battery pack, which is a critical enabler for extending the driving range of electric vehicles. Overcoming range anxiety is a fundamental hurdle for widespread EV adoption, and solid-state technology directly addresses this, making EVs more practical for consumers and helping automakers meet stringent global emission targets. This performance leap is creating immense pull from the automotive industry.

Restraint:

Technical challenges in scalability and mass production

A significant barrier to market growth involves the persistent technical challenges in scaling up manufacturing and achieving cost-effective mass production. Furthermore, issues such as the formation of lithium dendrites at the anode-electrolyte interface and poor ionic conductivity at room temperature remain engineering hurdles. These complexities necessitate specialized production equipment and pristine, often expensive, raw materials. Consequently, translating laboratory successes into commercially viable, gigawatt-scale production presents a substantial cost and technical challenge that delays widespread market penetration.

Opportunity:

Integration with fast-charging infrastructure

A major emerging opportunity lies in the seamless integration of solid-state batteries with next-generation fast-charging infrastructure. Their superior thermal stability and higher tolerance to rapid charging currents make them inherently safer and more durable under extreme charging conditions than liquid electrolyte batteries. This synergy could enable drastically reduced charging times, potentially matching the refueling speed of conventional vehicles. Such a development would be a game-changer for consumer adoption and is actively pursued by charging network operators and energy companies seeking future-proof solutions.

Threat:

Rapid innovation in competing battery chemistries

The market faces a tangible threat from the relentless innovation and incremental improvements in competing battery chemistries, particularly advanced lithium-ion variants like lithium-silicon and lithium-metal with liquid electrolytes. Moreover, these established technologies benefit from mature, scaled supply chains and continuous cost reductions. They run the risk of overshadowing solid-state batteries as they close the performance gap in energy density and safety, particularly if the latter's commercialization timeline extends. This competition for R&D funding and market mindshare represents a significant strategic threat.

Covid-19 Impact:

The Covid-19 pandemic initially disrupted the solid-state battery market by causing significant supply chain bottlenecks and delaying research and development activities due to global lockdowns and facility closures. However, the crisis also acted as a catalyst, highlighting the strategic importance of resilient supply chains and clean energy technologies. In the medium term, it sped up the government's and businesses' focus on electrification and sustainable investment as part of plans to get the economy back on track. This led to a renewed commitment to advanced battery development, including solid-state platforms.

The secondary segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

The secondary segment is expected to account for the largest market share during the forecast period, attributable to the overwhelming demand from the electric vehicle industry, which exclusively requires rechargeable (secondary) battery systems. Additionally, consumer electronics and grid storage applications, which are substantial markets themselves, also rely on rechargeable batteries. The high development focus and investment are channeled towards creating durable, long-cycle-life secondary solid-state batteries, cementing their position as the primary revenue generator for the foreseeable future.

The oxide-based solid electrolytes segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

Over the forecast period, the oxide-based solid electrolytes segment is predicted to witness the highest growth rate due to their superior chemical stability, high ionic conductivity, and excellent safety profile, which are highly prized for automotive applications. While they can be brittle, advancements in thin-film manufacturing and composite electrolytes are mitigating these challenges. Furthermore, they are compatible with high-voltage cathode materials due to their broad electrochemical window, which is crucial for achieving higher energy densities and accelerating their rapid adoption.

Region with largest share:

During the forecast period, the Asia Pacific region is expected to hold the largest market share, anchored by the presence of the world's largest battery manufacturers and a dominant electric vehicle supply chain, primarily in China, Japan, and South Korea. Strong government support, substantial national investments in battery technology, and the presence of major automotive OEMs actively developing solid-state batteries create a powerful ecosystem for production and early adoption, ensuring the region's market dominance in both volume and value.

Region with highest CAGR:

Over the forecast period, the Asia Pacific region is anticipated to exhibit the highest CAGR, fueled by aggressive national strategies, particularly in Japan and South Korea, which aim to achieve commercial solid-state battery production within this decade. China is also making huge investments in its own EV and battery industries. At the same time, research and development (R&D) activities and partnerships are growing across the region. This makes Asia Pacific a hotbed for innovation and rapid growth, putting it at the forefront of the market's growth.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players in Solid-State Battery Market include QuantumScape Corporation, Solid Power, Inc., ProLogium Technology Co., Ltd., Blue Solutions (Bollore Group), Ilika plc, Factorial Inc., Samsung SDI Co., Ltd., LG Energy Solution Ltd., Toyota Motor Corporation, Nissan Motor Co., Ltd., BYD Co., Ltd., CATL (Contemporary Amperex Technology Co., Limited), Panasonic Holdings Corporation, TDK Corporation, SK On Co., Ltd., Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd., Ampcera Inc., and Ion Storage Systems, Inc.

Key Developments:

In November 2025, Blue Solutions reports that its GEN4 lithium-metal solid-state batteries can deliver about 70% more driving autonomy compared with earlier generations, targeting automotive applications.

In October 2025, Ilika announces completion of commissioning of its automated Goliath solid-state battery pilot line (1.5 MWh capacities), enabling delivery of larger volumes of solid-state prototypes; 10 Ah P1.5 prototypes are planned for customer release from Dec 2025.

In September 2024, Solid Power is selected by the U.S. Department of Energy for negotiations on up to a $50 million award to install a continuous manufacturing process for sulfide-based solid electrolyte and expand production capacity for ASSBs at its Colorado facility.

Battery Types Covered:

  • Thin-Film Solid-State Batteries
  • Flexible Solid-State Batteries
  • Multi-Layer / Stacked Solid-State Batteries
  • Other Emerging Solid-State Battery Types

Categories Covered:

  • Primary (Non-Rechargeable)
  • Secondary (Rechargeable)

Electrolyte Types Covered:

  • Polymer-Based Solid Electrolytes
  • Sulfide-Based Solid Electrolytes
  • Oxide-Based Solid Electrolytes
  • Other Emerging Electrolytes

Capacities Covered:

  • Less Than 20 mAh
  • 20 mAh to 500 mAh
  • Above 500 mAh

Applications Covered:

  • Consumer & Portable Electronics
  • Electric Vehicles
  • Energy Storage Systems
  • Medical Devices
  • Aerospace & Defense
  • Industrial
  • Robotics
  • Other Applications

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2024, 2025, 2026, 2028, and 2032
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 Application Analysis
  • 3.8 Emerging Markets
  • 3.9 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Solid-State Battery Market, By Battery Type

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Thin-Film Solid-State Batteries
  • 5.3 Flexible Solid-State Batteries
  • 5.4 Multi-Layer / Stacked Solid-State Batteries
  • 5.5 Other Emerging Solid-State Battery Types

6 Global Solid-State Battery Market, By Category

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Primary (Non-Rechargeable)
  • 6.3 Secondary (Rechargeable)

7 Global Solid-State Battery Market, By Electrolyte Type

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Polymer-Based Solid Electrolytes
  • 7.3 Sulfide-Based Solid Electrolytes
  • 7.4 Oxide-Based Solid Electrolytes
  • 7.5 Other Emerging Electrolytes

8 Global Solid-State Battery Market, By Capacity

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Less Than 20 mAh
  • 8.3 20 mAh to 500 mAh
  • 8.4 Above 500 mAh

9 Global Solid-State Battery Market, By Application

  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 Consumer & Portable Electronics
  • 9.3 Electric Vehicles
  • 9.4 Energy Storage Systems
  • 9.5 Medical Devices
  • 9.6 Aerospace & Defense
  • 9.7 Industrial
  • 9.8 Robotics
  • 9.9 Other Applications

10 Global Solid-State Battery Market, By Geography

  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 North America
    • 10.2.1 US
    • 10.2.2 Canada
    • 10.2.3 Mexico
  • 10.3 Europe
    • 10.3.1 Germany
    • 10.3.2 UK
    • 10.3.3 Italy
    • 10.3.4 France
    • 10.3.5 Spain
    • 10.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 10.4 Asia Pacific
    • 10.4.1 Japan
    • 10.4.2 China
    • 10.4.3 India
    • 10.4.4 Australia
    • 10.4.5 New Zealand
    • 10.4.6 South Korea
    • 10.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 10.5 South America
    • 10.5.1 Argentina
    • 10.5.2 Brazil
    • 10.5.3 Chile
    • 10.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 10.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 10.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 10.6.2 UAE
    • 10.6.3 Qatar
    • 10.6.4 South Africa
    • 10.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

11 Key Developments

  • 11.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 11.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 11.3 New Product Launch
  • 11.4 Expansions
  • 11.5 Other Key Strategies

12 Company Profiling

  • 12.1 QuantumScape Corporation
  • 12.2 Solid Power, Inc.
  • 12.3 ProLogium Technology Co., Ltd.
  • 12.4 Blue Solutions (Bollore Group)
  • 12.5 Ilika plc
  • 12.6 Factorial Inc.
  • 12.7 Samsung SDI Co., Ltd.
  • 12.8 LG Energy Solution Ltd.
  • 12.9 Toyota Motor Corporation
  • 12.10 Nissan Motor Co., Ltd.
  • 12.11 BYD Co., Ltd.
  • 12.12 CATL (Contemporary Amperex Technology Co., Limited)
  • 12.13 Panasonic Holdings Corporation
  • 12.14 TDK Corporation
  • 12.15 SK On Co., Ltd.
  • 12.16 Ganfeng Lithium Co., Ltd.
  • 12.17 Ampcera Inc.
  • 12.18 Ion Storage Systems, Inc.

List of Tables

  • Table 1 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Region (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 2 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Battery Type (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 3 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Thin-Film Solid-State Batteries (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 4 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Flexible Solid-State Batteries (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 5 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Multi-Layer / Stacked Solid-State Batteries (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 6 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Other Emerging Solid-State Battery Types (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 7 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Category (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 8 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Primary (Non-Rechargeable) (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 9 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Secondary (Rechargeable) (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 10 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Electrolyte Type (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 11 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Polymer-Based Solid Electrolytes (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 12 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Sulfide-Based Solid Electrolytes (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 13 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Oxide-Based Solid Electrolytes (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 14 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Other Emerging Electrolytes (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 15 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Capacity (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 16 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Less Than 20 mAh (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 17 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By 20 mAh to 500 mAh (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 18 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Above 500 mAh (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 19 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Application (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 20 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Consumer & Portable Electronics (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 21 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Electric Vehicles (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 22 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Energy Storage Systems (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 23 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Medical Devices (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 24 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Aerospace & Defense (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 25 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Industrial (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 26 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Robotics (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 27 Global Solid-State Battery Market Outlook, By Other Applications (2024-2032) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.